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Psychoanalytic therapy is a form of talk therapy based on Sigmund Freud’s theories of psychoanalysis. The approach explores how the unconscious mind influences your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Specifically, it examines how your experiences (often from childhood) may be contributing to your current experience and actions. Psychoanalytic approaches to emotional disorders have advanced a great deal since Freud’s time.

Techniques

People undergoing psychoanalytic therapy often meet with their psychoanalyst at least once a week. They can remain in therapy for months or even years.

Psychoanalysts use a variety of techniques to gain insight into your behavior. Some of the more popular techniques include:

• Dream interpretation: According to Freud, dream analysis is by far the most important psychoanalytic technique. He often referred to dreams as “the royal road to the unconscious.” Psychoanalysts may interpret dreams to get insight into the workings of your unconscious mind.
• Free association: Free association is an exercise during which the psychoanalyst encourages you to freely share your thoughts. This can lead to the emergence of unexpected connections and memories.

In addition, during psychoanalysis, you might find that you are experiencing “transference.” Transference occurs when you project your feelings about another person onto the psychoanalyst. Talking about these feelings can help your psychoanalyst understand how you interact with others.

What Psychoanalytic Therapy Can Help With

Psychoanalytic therapy may be used to treat a number of different psychological conditions, including:

• Anxiety
• Depression
• Emotion struggles or trauma
• Identity problems
• Self-esteem issues
• Self-assertion
• Psychosomatic disorders
• Relationship issues
• Self-destructive behavior
• Sexual problems

Benefits of Psychoanalytic Therapy

What makes psychoanalytic therapy different from other forms of treatment? A review of the research comparing psychoanalytic approaches to cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) identified seven features that set the psychoanalytic approach apart.

• Focuses on emotions. Where CBT is centered on cognition and behaviors, psychoanalytic therapy explores the full range of emotions that a patient is experiencing.
• Explores avoidance. People often avoid certain feelings, thoughts, and situations they find distressing. Understanding what a client is avoiding can help both the psychoanalyst and the client understand why such avoidance comes into play.
• Identifies recurring themes. Some people may be aware of their self-destructive behaviors but unable to stop them. Others may not be aware of these patterns and how they influence their behaviors.
• Exploration of past experienced. Other therapies often focus more on the here-and-now, or how current thoughts and behaviors influence how a person functions. The psychoanalytic approach helps people explore their pasts and understand how it affects their present psychological difficulties. It can help patients shed the bonds of past experience to live more fully in the present.
• Explores interpersonal relationships. Through the therapy process, people are able to explore their relationships with others, both current and past.
• Emphasizes the therapeutic relationship. Because psychoanalytic therapy is so personal, the relationship between the psychoanalyst and the patient provides a unique opportunity to explore and reword relational patterns that emerge in the treatment relationship.
• Free-flowing. Where other therapies are often highly structured and goal-oriented, psychoanalytic therapy allows the patient to explore freely. Patients are free to talk about fears, fantasies, desires, and dreams.

Effectiveness

Success often hinges on the ability to confront potentially stressful or triggering experiences. While some critics have derided the success rates of psychoanalytic therapy, research suggests that both long- and short-term psychoanalytic therapy can effectively treat a range of conditions.

Symptom Reduction

One review of the effectiveness of long-term psychoanalytic therapies found moderate to large success rates for reducing symptoms of a variety of psychopathologies.

A 2021 review of studies found that short-term psychoanalytic therapy led to lasting improvements in somatic symptoms, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms.

Lasting Improvements

People who receive psychoanalytic treatment tend to retain these gains. Most continue to improve even after therapy ends. On the other hand, the benefits of other evidence-based therapies tend to diminish over time.

Things to Consider

As with all treatment methods, there are also potential downsides that should be considered. This form of therapy tends to require ongoing sessions. Traditional psychoanalysis could involve three to five sessions a week for several years, however psychoanalysis psychotherapy is less frequent and may be undertaken once to twice a week. Depending on how long your therapy lasts, the costs can mount up.

Psychoanalytic therapy can also be an intense process. It involves evoking emotional responses and often challenges established defense mechanisms. While the process can sometimes result in uneasiness, it can also help you understand the unconscious forces that exert an influence over your current behavior.

How to Get Started

If you think you or someone you love would benefit from psychoanalytic therapy, the first step is to seek out a trained professional. To find a qualified psychoanalyst, start by asking your primary care physician for recommendations. You can also search the directory available on the American Psychoanalytic Association’s website.

Once you have identified a potential psychoanalyst, make a call to set up an initial consultation. During this consultation, you can further explore if psychoanalytic therapy is the right approach for you.

Psychoanalytic therapy is just one mental health treatment approach that you may want to consider. Always talk to your doctor or therapist to determine which psychotherapy method might be the most effective for your individual needs.

L-tyrosine is an amino acid that is a precursor (which means it’s necessary for production) to dopamine and norepinephrine, two neurotransmitters that are important for focus and concentration.

According to some research, L-tyrosine has been shown to help improve cognitive performance during times of short-term stress and also improve working memory.

Because of this, the question of whether L-tyrosine may help with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms has been raised. However, there is limited research on the effectiveness of L-tyrosine for ADHD, and more studies are needed to confirm its efficacy. If you’re considering using L-tyrosine for ADHD, talk to your doctor first to see if it’s right for you.

Where to Find L-Tyrosine

L-tyrosine is found naturally in many foods, including the following:

• Eggs
• Fish
• Meat
• Milk
• Tofu
• Beans
• Seeds

L-tyrosine is also available in supplement form. It’s sometimes combined with other ingredients, such as:

• Vitamins B6: thought to aid in converting L-tyrosine to dopamine
• Acetyl-L-carnitine: purported to help with mental clarity
• Folic acid: thought to be beneficial for some with depression

What Chemical Are You Lacking If You Have ADHD

There is no one “chemical” that people with ADHD are lacking. However, some research suggests that ADHD may be associated with a decreased functioning in the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine (the target of ADHD medications) in certain parts of the brain.

Dopamine and norepinephrine are important neurotransmitters that play a role in focus and concentration. They’re also involved in the “reward center” of the brain, which helps regulate motivation and pleasure.

How Does L-Tyrosine Work?

L-tyrosine is thought to increase levels of dopamine and norepinephrine by providing the building blocks needed to make these neurotransmitters. The chemical pathway is as follows: L-tyrosine is converted to L-dopa by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase, and L-dopa is the direct precursor to dopamine. Further, dopamine is converted into norepinephrine.

Is L-Tyrosine the Same as Adderall?

L-tyrosine is sometime thought of as “over-the-counter Adderall”, a stimulant medication approved to treat ADHD. Both L-tyrosine and Adderall can potentially increase dopamine in different ways, however only Adderall has a clearly proven efficacy in the treatment of ADHD.

What Are the Benefits of L-Tyrosine?

As a dietary supplement, L-tyrosine has been purported to be of use for the following:

• Improving mental clarity and focus
• Increasing working memory and episodic memory
• Heightening alertness
• Increasing fluid intelligence
• Improving information processing
• Mitigating the effect of high cognitive load and stress
• Increasing energy levels
• Promoting weight loss
• Improving athletic performance
• Lowering blood pressure
• Reducing symptoms of depression

Many of these claims are not clearly supported by research. Let’s take a closer look at some of the science-backed benefits of L-tyrosine.

Cognitive flexibility

L-tyrosine is thought to improve cognitive flexibility. In one study, healthy adults were given either L-tyrosine or a placebo before completing a test that required switching from one task to another.

Working memory

Studies have looked at the impact of tyrosine on working memory.

One study found that daily intake of tyrosine through food intake enhances working memory and fluid intelligence in younger and older adults. In a randomized-controlled trial, taking a dose of L-tyrosine improved task performance in people during a test of behavioral inhibition and working memory. Their results also showed the response to tyrosine was moderated by genetic difference in the dopamine D2 receptor. However, this wasn’t tested specifically in people with ADHD..

Reducing Stress

Stressful conditions are known to negatively affect cognitive and physical performance. A systematic review of 15 studies showed that a single dose of L-tyrosine mitigated the impact of stress on cognitive tasks. For example, healthy adults who received a dose of tyrosine before being exposed to cold temperatures (a known stressor that can impede performance), did better on cognitive tasks than controls who did not take the tyrosine.

Another study described that L-tyrosine prevents some of the cognitive decline in response to physical stress.

How to Take L-Tyrosine

You can find L-tyrosine supplements at most health food stores. The usual dose is 500 to 2000mg per day. If you choose to try L-tyrosine, it’s generally thought best to start with a lower dose and increase it gradually.

How Long Does It Take For L-Tyrosine To Work

The effects of L-tyrosine may not be immediate and it may take several weeks for you to notice any changes. If you don’t notice any improvement after a few weeks, you may want to try a higher dose or talk to your doctor about other treatment options.

Possible Side Effects

L-tyrosine is generally considered safe when taken in recommended doses. However, it can cause some side effects, such as the following:

• Anxiety
• Headache
• High blood pressure
• Insomnia
• Nausea
• Restlessness
• Skin flushing
• Stomach upset
• Vomiting

If you have ADHD, you may be more sensitive to the side effects of L-tyrosine. Therefore, it’s important to start with a lower dose and increase gradually as needed. If you experience any side effects, stop taking the supplement and talk to your doctor.

Who Should Not Take L-Tyrosine?

L-tyrosine is generally considered safe when taken at recommended doses. However, it can cause side effects and can also interact with some medications. If you have an underlying health condition or are taking medications, it is especially important to speak to your doctor before taking L-tyrosine or any other supplement.

Takeaways

Although there is some evidence that L-tyrosine may help with certain aspects of cognitive performance, there is limited evidence to support it as an effective treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms.

However, more research is needed. If you’re considering taking L-tyrosine for ADHD, talk to your doctor first. They can help you weigh the potential risks and benefits and determine if L-tyrosine is right for you.

Repression is the unconscious blocking of unpleasant emotions, impulses, memories, and thoughts from your conscious mind. First described by Sigmund Freud, the purpose of this defense mechanism is to try to minimize feelings of guilt and anxiety.

However, while repression might initially be effective at calming these difficult emotions, it can lead to greater anxiety down the road. Freud believed that repression could lead to psychological distress.

History of Repression

In order to understand how repression works, it is important to look at how Sigmund Freud viewed the mind. Freud conceived of the human mind as being much like an iceberg.

The top of the iceberg that you can see above the water represents the conscious mind. The part of the iceberg that is submerged below the water, but is still visible, is the preconscious. The bulk of the iceberg that lies unseen beneath the waterline represents the unconscious. We may not be aware of what lies in the unconscious, but its contents can still affect our behavior in a number of different ways.

As Freud worked to help patients uncover their unconscious feelings, he began to believe that there was some mechanism at work that actively kept unacceptable thoughts hidden. This led to his development of the concept of repression.

Repression was the first defense mechanism Freud identified and he believed it to be the most important. In fact, the entire process of Freudian psychoanalysis focused on bringing these unconscious feelings and urges into awareness so they could be dealt with consciously.

Signs of Repression

Freud suggested that physical symptoms could be associated with repression. Subsequent research has linked an array of signs and symptoms with repressed emotions. These include:

• High blood pressure
• Skin conditions
• Fatigue
• Obesity
• Headache
• Dizziness
• Back, neck, chest, and abdominal pain

Psychologically, repression can lead to feelings of stress, anxiety, and depression. There is some evidence that accepting negative emotions (rather than repressing or suppressing them) could help people respond better to stress and contribute to overall psychological health.

There may also be some behavioral signs that someone is repressing memories, thoughts, or emotions. They might have difficulty talking about their thoughts or feelings, even becoming defensive when asked about them. They might feel numb or take subconscious actions (such as drinking alcohol or immersing themselves in social media) to avoid difficult feelings.

How Repression Is Used

Repression is one way the mind can deal with difficult thoughts or emotions. And in some cases, that is helpful. One review of research concluded that distorting reality through repression most often helps improve psychological and social functioning. People who have what is known as a repressive coping style tend to experience less depression and cope better with pain.

Other research into repressive coping showed that it is more common in older people, suggesting that it is something that develops over time. It is also associated with better well-being. However, repression can also be used to avoid confronting difficult experiences and feelings, and this can have meaningful consequences.

Impact of Repression

Research has supported the idea that selective forgetting is one way that people block awareness of unwanted thoughts or memories. One way this can occur is through what is referred to as retrieval-induced forgetting.

Retrieval-induced forgetting occurs when recalling certain memories causes other related information to be forgotten. So repeatedly calling forth some memories might lead other memories to become less accessible. Traumatic or unwanted memories, for example, might be forgotten by repeated retrieval of more positive ones.

Repression and Dreams

Freud believed that dreams were one way to peek into the unconscious mind. By analyzing the manifest content of dreams (or the literal events that take place in a dream), he believed that we could learn more about the latent content of the dream (or the symbolic, unconscious meanings).

Repressed feelings may pop up in the fears, anxieties, and desires that we experience in these dreams.

Repression and Slips of the Tongue

Freudian slips of the tongue are another example of how repressed thoughts and feelings can make themselves known. Freud believed that mistaken slips of the tongue could be very revealing, often showing what we really think or feel about something on an unconscious level.

While these feelings may be repressed, they have a way of sneaking out when we least expect them. Calling your romantic partner the name of someone you work with might just be a simple mistake—but Freud would suggest that it might be a sign that you have repressed sexual desires for that co-worker.

Repression and the Oedipus Complex

In his theory of psychosexual development, Freud suggested that children go through a process during the genital stage where they initially view their same-sex parent as a rival for the opposite-sex parent’s affections. In order to resolve this conflict, they repress these feelings of aggression and instead begin to identify with their same-sex parent.

Repression and Phobias

Phobias can be an example of how a repressed memory might continue to exert an influence on behavior. For example, a young child is bitten by a dog. They later develop a severe phobia of dogs but have no memory of when or how this fear originated. They have repressed the painful memory of the fearful experience with the dog, so they are unaware of exactly where their fear came from.

Controversies About Repression

The notion of repressed memories, or the existence of memories that are so painful or traumatic that they are kept out of conscious awareness, has been a controversial topic in psychology.

Repression and Psychoanalysis

While repression is a term frequently used in psychology, it is considered a loaded and controversial concept. It has long served as a core idea within psychoanalysis, yet critics have questioned the validity and even the existence of repression.

Psychoanalytic theory suggests that repression plays a role in distorting an individual’s reality, which may then lead to neurosis and dysfunction. However, some research suggests that these distortions may have a beneficial impact in some circumstances.

While it was once thought that psychoanalysis helped people by surfacing repressed memories, it is currently believed that there are many other therapeutic actions that contribute to the success of any type of psychological therapy, psychoanalysis or otherwise.

Repression and Memory

Repressed memories came to the spotlight during the 1980s and 1990s when a number of high-profile cases involving recovered memories of childhood abuse captured media attention.

Researchers such as Elizabeth Loftus have repeatedly demonstrated that false memories of events that did not actually happen form quite readily. People are also prone to confabulation of memories. People may fully believe that such memories are accurate, even though the events did not actually occur as remembered.

Freud himself noted that people sometimes experienced a “recovery” of repressed childhood memories during the course of psychoanalytic therapy. In his book “Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis,” he concluded that “these scenes from infancy are not always true. Indeed, they are not true in the majority of cases, and in a few of them they are the direct opposite of the historical truth.”

In many cases, trauma can actually strengthen the memory of an event. People may develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a result of traumatic experiences, causing them to experience vivid flashbacks of the events. Rather than experiencing repression of the painful memories, people relive them again and again, involuntarily.

This does not necessarily mean that memories of these events are completely accurate. Memory distortions are common, especially because the encoding, storage, and retrieval processes are prone to errors.

While Freud believed that lifting repression was the key to recovery, this has not been supported by research. Instead, some experts believe that bringing repressed material to light can be the first step toward change. Understanding something, after all, is not enough to fix a problem. But it can lead to further efforts that may result in real relief and lasting changes.

When someone you care about is depressed, offering advice or wisdom may be something you do with only good intentions in mind. However, the words you use may not convey the message you want to send—especially if you don’t understand the nature of depression and mental illness.

That’s why it can be helpful to understand what not to say to someone with depression. Avoiding the types of statements presented here can keep your family member or friend from feeling worse, or from feeling as if you have no compassion or empathy for their experience.

Things Not to Say to Someone With Depression

It’s important to discuss mental health with people we care about. But if we don’t use tact and compassion, our attempts to help may do more harm than good. Below are some comments to avoid and habits to refrain from when speaking to someone with depression.

Don’t Tell Them to Try Harder

Avoid making comments like “snap out of it” or “just try harder.” Having someone tell you to try harder when you are already giving it your best effort can be demoralizing and may make a person with depression feel their situation is hopeless.

There are many reasons depression develops and a person cannot control all of the risk factors involved. Once a person has become depressed, it’s not a matter of just “talking themselves out of” a low mood.

Like diabetes or hypothyroidism, depression can happen because of physiological reasons. Research suggests that neurotransmission issues, HPA axis abnormalities, and network dysfunctions can all contribute to depression. Issues with neurotransmitter regulation may play a role as well.

So, similar to how people with diabetes might need treatment with insulin, people with depression may need medical intervention and support. For some people, this may mean taking medications that address chemical imbalances that can contribute to the condition.

Don’t Oversimplify

Well-meaning exhortations to “cheer up” or “smile” may feel friendly and supportive to you, but they oversimplify the intense feelings associated with depression. Depression makes it difficult for individuals to function as they typically would, and it is longer-term than ordinary sadness.

Just as someone who is depressed can’t force their brain to make more serotonin, they also can’t just “decide” to be happy. While there are certainly benefits to practicing positive thinking, it’s not enough to cure someone of depression.

Don’t Express Disbelief

“People who need help sometimes look a lot like people who don’t need help,” says author Glennon Doyle in her book “Carry On, Warrior.” In other words, how a person appears on the outside does not necessarily reflect how they feel on the inside.

This is true of many mental illnesses, but also chronic illnesses and conditions that are sometimes deemed invisible. So avoid making statements like:

• “But you don’t look depressed!”
• “You don’t seem sad!”
• “You haven’t been acting any different.”

Don’t Respond With Doubt

Depressive thoughts can become very intense and, in fact, are characteristic of depression itself—even though they don’t reflect reality. Yet, people may not reveal the depth of these thoughts and feelings to those they care about, making it important to avoid comments such as, “Are you sure you’re not just sad?”

Some reasons people with depression may try to hide what they are feeling include:

• They may feel ashamed, embarrassed, confused, guilty, or afraid of what would happen if others found out they were depressed.
• They may worry they will be seen as incompetent at work or as a parent.
• They may be worried that their spouse, family, and friends will stop loving them.

Just because someone with depression tries to cover it up, it doesn’t mean they want to be dismissed when they do choose to open up about how they feel. It takes courage to speak openly about the pain they are experiencing. If someone responds with doubt, it may make them feel like talking about their depression is not safe.

Don’t Compare Their Pain

When talking to a friend with depression or who is going through a difficult time, resist the temptation to compare their pain with that of someone else’s. Remember that pain (both emotional and physical) is not only subjective but also relative.

Avoid comments like:

• “It can’t be that bad.”
• “It could be worse.”
• “You think you have it bad…”

Depression doesn’t need a justification. The experience is highly personal, and even if you care about someone and want to help, be aware that you can never know for sure how it feels to be them.

So, stop yourself from making comparisons or staging a “competition” for who feels the worst. Doing so isn’t helpful and can make a person with depression feel that you’re not truly listening to what they’re telling you.

Don’t Minimize Their Experience

To you, an event or situation that constitutes a minor annoyance or inconvenience may feel like an insurmountable obstacle to your loved one with depression. However, people with depression may lack the internal resources needed to cope with stress in an effective and healthy way.

So, avoid statements such as:

• “You’ve got this. You’re just in a slump.”
• “You’ll get through this; just keep pushing.”
• “This is minor. You’ve been through worse.”

The person may also worry if they don’t see a clear reason for their depression, and not knowing why they are depressed can make them feel worse. What someone’s life looks like on the outside doesn’t always reflect, or change, how they feel on the inside.

Don’t Blame

While a deficiency of mood-regulating substances in the brain may be contributing to depression, the phrase “all in your head” tends to be blameful. People who hear the phrase may feel attacked, as though they are being accused of making it up or lying about how they feel.

So, avoid saying things such as:

• “It’s all in your head.”
• “It’s your fault.”
• “You’re imagining things.”

Furthermore, depression very often is not just in someone’s head but in their body as well. There are many physical symptoms of depression, including chronic pain, which are very real. Depression is a medical condition that can’t be expected to improve without treatment.

Don’t Attribute It to Their Lifestyle

Avoid saying things such as:

• “Maybe this is a wake-up call that you need to change your life.”
• “What did you expect from the lifestyle you’ve been living?”
• “I’m not surprised based on the way you’ve been living your life.”

While researchers don’t understand all the potential causes of depression, they know that there are many factors. Some of the key factors that contribute to depression development include:

• Genetics. Some environmental factors may also play a role, perhaps by triggering an underlying inherited vulnerability to depression.
• Environmental factors. As with genetics, people can’t always control environmental triggers such as the type of home they grew up in. It’s well known that people who experienced trauma or abuse in childhood are at an increased risk for depression later in life.
• Stress. Chronic daily stress, personal problems, and major life events can play a role in triggering symptoms of depression.

There are some modifiable risk factors and lifestyle changes that can have an impact on symptoms, but simply recommending lifestyle changes they may not be prepared for can also be unhelpful. The symptoms of depression (such as fatigue and lack of motivation) can make mental and physical activity overwhelming and exhausting.

Don’t Be Apathetic

When someone is depressed, they may carry feelings of guilt and shame. They may feel that they are a burden to the people in their lives. These feelings can make depression worse and may even lead to suicidal thoughts or self-harming behaviors.

When you care for (and about) someone who is depressed, you may say hurtful things when you are feeling frustrated or worried. If you find yourself thinking, “Who cares?” when listening to a loved one, recognize that it might be a sign you are burnt out.

You need to take care of your own emotional and mental health before you can help someone else with theirs. If you are feeling frustrated, irritated, or helpless, check in with yourself and make sure you have the support you need.

Don’t Shame

It may seem, at times, like someone who is depressed is overly preoccupied with their own life (or, more specifically, their own thoughts), but that doesn’t make them selfish. Avoiding making comments that shame them for how they are feeling, such as:

• “You only think about yourself.”
• “Other people have problems, too.”
• “You’re thinking about yourself too much.”

Implying that a person with depression doesn’t care about other people provides no comfort and only fuels feelings of blame, shame, and guilt. People who experience depression still care about others. They just may not have the capacity to show it when dealing with depression.

Don’t Ignore Them

Even if you have experienced clinical depression yourself, your experience may be different from someone else’s. If you’ve never had depression, it may be hard for you to empathize. In either case, if someone you love is depressed, the best thing you can do is be open and willing to learn.

Rather than giving up on a conversation by saying “I just don’t understand”—or saying you do understand when you really don’t—start by reassuring your loved one that you care about them.

Avoid Platitudes

While a statement you make may be true, a person who is depressed may not have the perspective necessary to entertain the idea—let alone believe it. Platitudes, clichés, and vague statements don’t offer much for someone to hold on to in terms of hope.

So, avoid making statements like:

• “This too shall pass.”
• “Let it go.”
• “You’ll get over it.”

A person who is depressed may have a hard time envisioning the future because they are overwhelmed by the present. It’s also not easy to let go or escape from the past, especially for someone who has experienced trauma or loss.

You may feel like you’re offering hope by saying that eventually, things will get better, but a person who is depressed may be frustrated wondering how long they will have to wait.

If you think you’ve said something hurtful in the past, apologize. Explain that you weren’t sure what to say or that you didn’t understand. Making a genuine apology can help someone begin to feel better, even if your words haven’t been helpful in the past.

Parenting styles describe the different techniques, environments, and behaviors parents use to raise their children. Psychologists believe parents’ actions are linked to child development and even influence behavior in adulthood. This quiz can help us discover our own parenting style or the parenting style we were raised under.

Who Is This Parenting Style Quiz For?

This parenting style quiz is for those of us who are curious about the parenting style they’re using on their children or those curious about the parenting style they were raised under. It can help us understand some of our children’s responses to our parenting techniques or help us understand what’s behind some of our behaviors in adulthood.

The goal in parenting isn’t to show up perfectly, but to expand one’s capacity to show up better over time.

—
YOLANDA RENTERIA, LPC

What Are the 4 Types of Parenting Styles?

Researchers studying parenting and child development have put parenting styles into groups ranging from three or more. The four commonly known and discussed parenting styles are authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved, which is also referred to as neglectful parenting. 

Authoritarian Parenting

Authoritarian parents expect their children to follow strict rules. Failure to follow the rules often results in harsh punishment. The rules are typically created by the parents with no input from the children and there is little to no explanation as to why the rules exist. This style of parenting is not flexible or very nurturing.

Authoritative Parenting

Authoritative parents also have high expectations for their children, but they’re more nurturing than authoritarian parents. Under this style of parenting, parents give their kids rules and guidelines, but they’re also willing to listen to the child’s input and explain why the rules exist. If the children don’t follow the guidelines, authoritative parents don’t use harsh punishment; they’re more forgiving.

Permissive Parenting

Permissive parents are usually warm and nurturing, but they tend to avoid conflict with their children, lack structure and consistency with discipline and don’t have or enforce guidelines or rules. Children of these parents often struggle with impulse control, are more prone to anxiety and depression, and have trouble self-regulating and dealing with authority.

Uninvolved/Neglectful Parenting

Uninvolved or neglectful parents may meet a child’s basic needs—such as providing food and shelter—but don’t have a lot of communication or positive interactions with the child. These parents may not know much about their child’s life and might seem indifferent or unresponsive. They may also be neglectful or physically or emotionally abusive.

What to Know About Parenting Styles

Researchers have been studying parenting and child development for around 75 years (!). From the 1930s to the 1960s, research focused on parenting traits rather than parenting behaviors. Psychologist Diana Baumrind studied more than 100 preschool-age children in the 1960s. Through her observations, Baumrind identified different dimensions of parenting, which she then put into the three parenting styles. A fourth parenting style was added later. 

Our parenting style can influence how our child thinks about and interacts with the outside world, which can include:

• How they make friends and choose romantic partners
• How they view themselves (self-esteem)
• How they perform academically
• Their mental health and well-being