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The male gaze describes a way of portraying and looking at women that empowers men while sexualizing and diminishing women.

From early adolescence on, we are biologically driven to look at and evaluate each other as potential mates—but the male gaze twists this natural urge, turning women into passive items to possess and use as props.

Overview

The term “male gaze” was first popularized in relation to the depiction of female characters in film as inactive, often overtly sexualized objects of male desire. However, the influence of the male gaze is not limited to how women and girls are featured in the movies. Rather, it extends to the experience of being seen in this way, both for the female figures on screen, the viewers, and by extension, to all girls and women at large.

Naturally, the influence of the male gaze seeps into female self-perception and self-esteem. It’s as much about the impact of seeing other women relegated to these supporting roles as it is about the way women are conditioned to fill them in real life. The pressure to conform to this patriarchal view (or to simply accept or humor it) and endure being seen in this way shapes how women think about their own bodies, capabilities, and place in the world—and that of other women.

In essence, the male gaze discourages female empowerment and self-advocacy while encouraging self-objectification and deference to men and the patriarchy at large.

Learn more about what the male gaze is as well as its larger impact on both a personal and societal level.

History

British feminist film theorist Laura Mulvey described the concept of the “male gaze” in her 1973 essay “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,” which was published in 1975 in the film theory magazine Screen. In the article, Mulvey, who is a professor of film and media studies at Birkbeck, University of London, explained the way that mainstream media objectifies women, showing the female body through a heterosexual male lens as a passive non-actor secondary to the active male characters.

This concept extends from film to any medium in which women are portrayed as well as, generally, to their experience in real life. For example, think about how women are often shown in advertisements, magazine covers, and social media compared with men, as well as how their bodies are typically framed by the camera. Consider the emphasis typically placed on how women look, dress, and comport themselves—even on their expressions—as opposed to for men.

Since its inception, the male gaze has reached beyond the silver (or iPhone) screen to encompass how the female sex is portrayed and viewed in any context, from being catcalled while walking down the street to being dismissed as golddiggers or for having “hissy-fits.” By extension, simply worrying about your appearance, relative attractiveness, seeming “too smart,” or how you will be “seen” can also fall under the guise of living under the male gaze.

Additionally, the male gaze also dictates specific characteristics (as the voyeur, the actor, the peruser, the active doer, the dominator) to men—and may even contribute to the stereotype that men are more intelligent than women. In fact, studies on gender bias and implicit assumptions show that many people (without realizing it) assume that men are smarter than women and that negative depictions of women in media are partly to blame.

The argument is that the male gaze controls the narrative, which is that women are not equal actors in the world. Instead, their agency is reduced to that of an erotic or supporting object, with their value as a female form (and person) reduced to how it appeals to the male viewer and/or to how threatening (or not) it is to the stereotypical male perspective. Likewise, this viewpoint also confines the male persona to their specific role as the protagonist, aggressor, sexual pursuer, and consumer of women.

Understanding the Male Gaze

In order to understand the male gaze, you need to recognize it. Typical examples are female film characters whose main purpose in driving the plot seems to be to be attractive, sexy, and/or to feed the sexual interest or agenda of the male characters. They wear heels and tight dresses (even if they are police detectives who may need to pursue a suspect) and while they may be shown in a variety of contexts, their primary motivation rests on being the helper, eye candy, or romantic interest.

Think also of beer (or just about any other product) advertisements with models in bikinis. Female singers tend to perform showing lots of skin, while their male counterparts show up in jeans or a suit.

The bodies of these women are used to sell and attract (predominantly heterosexual male) attention. Female celebrities pose provocatively on the covers of magazines, male stars (usually fully dressed) pose alongside minimally-dressed models or simply on their own. The message is that men are provocative enough without showing a lot of skin.

The Effects of the Male Gaze

To get a sense of the full ramifications of the male gaze, it’s vital to recognize how the representations of women within film and various other forms of media filter out from those movies, magazine layouts, and pinup images to inform how women are viewed by society-at-large.

When women, men, girls, and boys routinely see women and girls depicted in this limited, sexualized manner, it’s no surprise that this objectified view informs your expectations, culture, and personal identities.

Consider how the other characters within the movie, ad, or social media post react to and see these passive, often nearly-naked women as well as the experience of the people taking it in as viewers. Continually seeing girls and women serve as prizes for men and acting without much agency of their own except to jockey for male attention, influences male and female perceptions of female value, purpose, sexuality, and power.

Is It Harmful?

Certainly, there are many viewpoints on the impact and relevance of the male gaze and how it may or may not have morphed over the nearly 50 years since Mulvey first brought the concept into the public consciousness. However, many would agree that the underpinnings of the male gaze are deeply sexist, patriarchal, and misogynistic and that its influence continues to be pervasive.

Additionally, for people in traditionally marginalized groups, the male gaze is an added burden. For example, Black women have historically been depicted as being hypersexual by the male gaze, which adds another facet of stereotype to the pervasive racism they face.

Similarly, the male gaze also fetishizes Asian (and lesbian women, as long as the man can watch or participate), portraying them as exotic, erotic specimens for male enjoyment. The blonde bombshell (also known as the ditzy blonde or airhead) is another common trope.

On a larger scale, it works to maintain the patriarchal structure, which elevates the White, male experience at the expense of women, people of color, and other historically underserved groups. Seeing women and girls continually portrayed in this way by the male gaze perpetuates this vision.

Particularly salient examples are images of little girls on dance teams or pageants dressed in revealing outfits, faces in full makeup, dancing in a sexualized manner. Instagram is full of posts by tween and teen girls in very short skirts, midriff tops, or bikinis posing with arched backs, pouty lips, and blank or come-hither expressions, often with a group of them all pressed up against each other.

While some aspects of these portrayals may be seen by some as powerful, sexual, or beautiful, they also stem from centuries of visual objectification of women for the pleasure of men.

Is There a Positive Side?

Ultimately, the question is not whether or not girls and women should be able to wear, pose, or represent themselves in whatever way they want—the answer to that is a resounding, yes. There should be no shame in dressing provocatively and owning your sexuality. Plus, it can be argued that there can be an element of reclaiming their own bodies when girls and women purposefully choose to take on this guise. Particularly, when they are doing so intentionally while fully aware of the history.

However, what critics of the male gaze may wonder is why do they want to pose and dress in this manner? Maybe it’s just for fun, or to experiment with their burgeoning sexuality or identity or trying on a role.

But what is the underlying motivation? Who are they dressing for? Who is consuming these images and what do they see when they look at them? Does it reinforce or challenge the idea of the female form as an object to be had or as a stepping stone? What do the girls and women in the pictures and videos (and in real life) envision and who do they imagine watching them?

Mental Health Impacts

These are big questions that often don’t get much attention. However, that doesn’t mean that these issues aren’t at play—whether it’s consciously or subconsciously. But the accumulated impact of living under the male gaze does more than simply alter how a girl poses for the camera, the types of characters they see in their favorite TV shows, or how it feels to them to be seen out in the world.

In fact, the objectification of women and girls has profound mental health impacts—and social media has become a particularly potent method of disseminating the reach of the male gaze.

Studies show that increasing incidences of depression, anxiety, loneliness, low self-esteem, eating disorders, self-harm, and suicidal ideation are related to female objectification.

Interestingly, a 2014 study entitled “Fathers, daughters, and self-objectification: does bonding style matter,” found a strong link between negative eating patterns and body shame in girls who grew up with highly attentive and overly protective fathers. The researchers point to the added attention these dads placed on their daughter’s changing bodies and sexuality as an explanation for the girls’ added struggles with healthy eating and body image.

Changing the Gaze

Awareness of the influence of the male gaze is key to freeing yourself of its power. Simply considering its pervasiveness and influence may offset a significant amount of its impact, allowing you to see yourself and function in the world simply as you are, without relegating yourself to the supporting role.

Focusing on and seeking out depictions of women and girls that run counter to the stereotypes of the male gaze also may help to shatter its hold on our collective psyches. Ultimately, discarding the weight of worrying about being seen, who is watching, or fitting into the prescripted “female” role, lets you instead be the person you want to be.

Learning disabilities are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders that can significantly hamper a person’s ability to learn new things. As a result, the person may have trouble with tasks such as speaking, reading, writing, paying attention, understanding information, remembering things, performing mathematical calculations, or coordinating movements.

Types of Learning Disabilities

“Learning disability” is an umbrella term that encompasses many types of specific learning disorders, including:

• Dyslexia: Dyslexia is the most common learning disability, accounting for 80% of all learning disability cases. It is a language processing disorder characterized by difficulty with speaking, reading, writing, or understanding words. This can cause the person’s vocabulary to develop at a slower pace and lead to issues with grammar, reading comprehension, and other language skills.
• Dysgraphia: People with dysgraphia may have difficulty putting their thoughts into writing due to issues with vocabulary, spelling, grammar, memory, and critical thinking. This condition is characterized by poor handwriting, as the person may struggle with letter spacing, spatial awareness, and motor planning. Dysgraphia can make it hard for the person to think and write simultaneously.
• Dyscalculia: Sometimes known as “math dyslexia,” this condition includes learning disorders related to mathematics, such as difficulty with numbers, concepts, and reasoning. People with dyscalculia may struggle to count money, read clocks and tell time, perform mental math calculations, identify number patterns, and apply mathematical formulae.
• Auditory processing disorder (APD): People with APD may have difficulty processing sounds because their brain misinterprets auditory information received by the ear. As a result, they may confuse the order of sounds in certain words, or they may not be able to distinguish between sounds such as the teacher’s voice and the background noise in the classroom.
• Language processing disorder (LPD): This is a subset of APD, characterized by difficulties with processing spoken language. The person may have difficulty attaching meaning to sound groups representing words, sentences, and stories.
• Nonverbal learning disabilities (NVLD): NVLD is characterized by difficulty interpreting nonverbal cues such as facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, and other nonverbal signals.
• Visual perceptual/visual motor deficit: People with this condition may have difficulty with hand-eye coordination and motor activities. They may frequently lose their spot while reading, demonstrate unusual eye movements while reading or writing, confuse similar-looking letters, have difficulty navigating their environment, and struggle to manage items like pens, pencils, crayons, glue, and scissors.

Symptoms of Learning Disabilities

These are some of the symptoms of learning disabilities:

• Poor memory
• Difficulty focusing
• Short attention span
• Difficulty with reading or writing
• Inability to distinguish between sounds, letters, or numbers
• Difficulty sounding out words
• Tendency to put numbers or letters in the wrong sequence
• Difficulty telling time
• Confusion between right and left
• Tendency to reverse letters
• Difficulty grasping certain words and concepts
• Disconnect between words and meaning (i.e.. saying one thing but meaning another)
• Difficulty expressing thoughts and emotions
• Poor hand-eye coordination
• Delayed speech development 
• Disorganization
• Trouble with listening and following instructions
• Inappropriate responses
• Restlessness and impulsiveness
• Tendency to act out
• Difficulty with discipline
• Resistance to change 
• Inconsistent performance on a daily or weekly basis

According to the National Institute for Learning Development (NILD), frustration is a hallmark of this condition, since people with learning disabilities often excel at some things but do very poorly in other areas, and are often acutely aware of the gaps between what they can and cannot do.

The NILD notes that people with learning disabilities often find themselves failing in certain academic or professional areas due to reasons beyond their control, or having to put in tremendous amounts of effort in order to succeed. This experience can be difficult, confusing, and demotivating, often causing the person to feel sad and disappointed.

Causes of Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are caused by differences in the neurological functioning of the person’s brain. These differences can occur before the person is born, during their birth, or in early childhood, and may be caused by factors such as:

• Maternal illness during pregnancy
• Birth complications that block the flow of oxygen to the baby’s brain
• Certain genes that can make the person more genetically predisposed to developing a learning disability
• Injury or illness, such as meningitis, in early childhood 
• Health conditions such as cerebral palsy and Down’s syndrome often involve some extent of learning disability

However, it’s important to note that learning disabilities should not be mistaken for learning problems that arise due to other factors such as:

• Visual, hearing, verbal, or motor handicaps
• Intellectual disability
• Emotional disturbances
• Economic, cultural, or environmental disadvantages

Diagnosing Learning Disabilities

A healthcare professional can diagnose learning disabilities. The diagnostic process might involve:

• Academic testing: The healthcare provider may administer a standardized achievement test that checks the person’s reading, writing, and arithmetic skills, as well as an intelligence quotient (IQ) test. If the person performs well on the IQ test but has a lower score on the achievement test, it could indicate that they have a learning disability.
• Performance review: The healthcare provider may review and evaluate the person’s academic, professional, social, and developmental performance.
• Medical history: The healthcare provider will likely ask questions about the person’s personal and family medical history.
• Physical and neurological exam: The healthcare provider may conduct a physical and neurological exam to check for other health conditions such as brain diseases, mental health conditions, and developmental and intellectual disabilities.

Every learning disability has different symptoms, and everyone’s experience of the condition is unique. The signs, frequency, and intensity of symptoms can vary considerably. Some people may have a single, isolated learning difficulty that doesn’t cause issues in day-to-day life; others have overlapping learning disabilities that make it difficult for them to function without support.

Learning disabilities typically develop at a young age and are often diagnosed during the person’s school years, since the primary focus at school is learning. An estimated 8% to 10% of American children younger than 18 have learning disabilities.

However, some people are not diagnosed with learning disabilities until they attend college or get a job; others never receive an official diagnosis, so they go through life without knowing why they have trouble with academics, work, relationships, or day-to-day tasks.

Treating Learning Disabilities

Treatment for learning disabilities may involve:

• Special education: Children with learning disabilities may benefit from education by specially trained teachers who perform a comprehensive evaluation of the child’s abilities and then help the child build on their strengths while compensating for their disabilities. 
• Medication: Some people may need to take medication to improve their ability to focus and concentrate.
• Therapy: Psychotherapy can help people with learning disabilities deal with emotional issues and develop coping skills.
• Other interventions: People with learning disabilities may also benefit from other interventions such as speech and language therapy.
• Support groups: People with learning disabilities as well as parents of children with learning disabilities may benefit from support group meetings that help them connect with others who have similar experiences. Learning difficulties can often lead to tension, misunderstandings, and conflicts among the family, particularly among families where the condition is hereditary.

Takeaways

Every human being is equipped with a unique set of strengths and weaknesses that enable them to do some things effortlessly but struggle in other areas. Although people with learning disabilities have some challenges with learning, they are not in any way inferior to anyone else. Special education, treatment, support, kindness, and patience can help them achieve success.

The Little Albert experiment was a landmark study that demonstrated that fear can be classically conditioned in humans. Conducted by behaviorist John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner, it involved conditioning a young boy, Little Albert, to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud, frightening noise. Over time, this fear generalized to similar objects, revealing how emotional responses can be learned.

What Happened in the Little Albert Experiment?

The experiment’s participant was a child that Watson and Rayner called “Albert B.” but is known popularly today as Little Albert. When Little Albert was 9 months old, Watson and Rayner exposed him to a series of stimuli, including a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey, masks, and burning newspapers, and observed the boy’s reactions.

• Initial testing: At the experiment’s outset, the little boy showed no fear of any objects he was shown. What Watson did next changed everything.
• Conditioning: The next time Albert was exposed to the rat, Watson made a loud noise by hitting a metal pipe with a hammer.
• Results: Naturally, the child began to cry after hearing the loud noise. After repeatedly pairing the white rat with the loud noise, Albert began to expect a frightening noise whenever he saw the white rat. Soon, Albert began to cry simply after seeing the rat.

It’s a textbook example of how classical conditioning works. In some cases, these frightening experiences can cause a lasting fears, such as with phobias.

How Watson Used Classical Conditioning on Little Albert

The Little Albert experiment is a great example of how classical conditioning can be used to condition an emotional response. Here’s how the stimuli and responses are defined:

• Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response (the white rat).
• Unconditioned stimulus: A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response (the loud noise).
• Unconditioned response: A natural reaction to a given stimulus (fear).
• Conditioned stimulus: A stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (the white rat).
• Conditioned response: The response caused by the conditioned stimulus (fear).

Why Little Albert Feared More Than Just White Rats

In addition to demonstrating that emotional responses could be conditioned in humans, Watson and Rayner also observed a phenomenon known as stimulus generalization.

After conditioning, Albert feared not just the white rat, but a wide variety of similar white objects as well. His fear included other furry objects, including Raynor’s fur coat and Watson wearing a Santa Claus beard.

More recent examinations of the film evidence suggest that Watson and Rayner may have exaggerated the extent to which Albert’s fear response generalized to other white, furry objects.

Why the Little Albert Experiment Was So Controversial

While the experiment is one of psychology’s most famous and is included in nearly every introductory psychology course, it is widely criticized for several reasons. First, the experimental design and process were not carefully constructed. Watson and Rayner did not develop an objective means to evaluate Albert’s reactions, instead of relying on their own subjective interpretations.

What Happened to Little Albert?

The question of what happened to Little Albert has long been one of psychology’s mysteries. Before Watson and Rayner could attempt to “cure” Little Albert, he and his mother moved away. Some envisioned the boy growing into a man with a strange phobia of white, furry objects.

Initial Attempts to Identify Albert

In 2009, researchers published the results of their attempt to track down the boy’s identity. As reported in American Psychologist, a seven-year search led by psychologist Hall P. Beck led to the discovery of a child the researchers believed might be Little Albert.

After tracking down and locating the original experiments and the possible identity of the boy’s mother, it was suggested that Little Albert was actually a boy named Douglas Merritte.

Unfortunately, the researchers discovered that Douglas had died on May 10, 1925, at the age of six, of hydrocephalus (a build-up of fluid in his brain), which he had suffered from since birth.

In 2012, Beck and Alan J. Fridlund reported that Douglas was not the healthy, normal child Watson described in his 1920 experiment. Instead, they suggested that Watson may have known about and deliberately concealed the boy’s neurological condition.

More recent evidence, however, suggests that Merritte was incorrectly identified as Little Albert.

The Likely Identity of the Real Little Albert

In 2014, however, Beck and Fridlund’s findings were questioned when researchers presented evidence that a boy named William Barger was the real Little Albert.

Barger was born on the same day as Merritte to a wet nurse who worked at the same hospital as Merritte’s mother. While his first name was William, he was known his entire life by his middle name—Albert.

Intellectual functioning can affect a person’s risk of developing a psychiatric disorder or substance use disorder. If functioning is below that of the general population, yet not low enough to be classified as an intellectual disability, the person may be diagnosed with borderline intellectual functioning—potentially putting them at greater risk of these types of issues.

Here we explore what borderline intellectual functioning is and the criteria for diagnosis. We also discuss the impacts of a borderline intellectual disability on a person’s life and how to get help if this type of condition is suspected.

What Is Borderline Intellectual Functioning?

Borderline intellectual functioning refers to intelligence quotient (IQ) scores within the 71 to 84 range on an intelligence test. This is roughly one to two standard deviations below that of the general population.

It is called borderline because it’s on the border of the criteria required for the diagnosis of an intellectual disability in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). According to the DSM, an intellectual disability exists when a person’s IQ score is 70 or below.

Causes of Reduced Intellectual Functioning

Several factors can contribute to the development of an intellectual disability. They include:

• Brain malformation
• Exposure to toxins like mercury or lead
• Genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome or Fragile X syndrome
• Having an illness like meningitis or measles
• Maternal consumption of alcohol or drugs during pregnancy
• Maternal infection during pregnancy or problems at birth
• Traumatic brain injury

How Borderline Intellectual Functioning Is Diagnosed

In the DSM-IV, the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, there was a diagnostic category called “mental retardation.” This diagnosis was made largely through standardized IQ tests. In 2013, when the new DSM-5 was released, mental retardation disappeared and in its place was “intellectual development disorder.”

Someone with an IQ of 70 or below is considered to have an intellectual disability under this diagnosis. If their IQ is between 71 and 84, they are considered to have borderline intellectual functioning.

While IQ scores play an important role in recognizing intellectual development disorders, other factors are also taken into consideration. According to the American Psychiatric Association, which publishes the DSM, intellectual disability involves issues with functioning in two areas:

• Intellectual functioning: such as learning, problem-solving, and judgment
• Adaptive functioning: activities of daily living, such as communication and independent living

Impacts of a Borderline Intellectual Disability

People with borderline intellectual disability have a greater risk of developing mental health issues than someone with an average or above-average level of intelligence. This risk is higher for almost all psychiatric disorders, including personality disorders.

Research also indicates that people with substance use disorder have a higher prevalence of borderline intellectual functioning than that of the general population. While this study doesn’t establish cause and effect, it does show a connection.

This research also found that during substance use disorder treatment, people with borderline intellectual functioning typically experience greater psychological distress. This can impact their treatment outcomes.

Getting Help for Borderline Intellectual Functioning

A person with a borderline intellectual disability will likely need someone else’s help to advocate for them and to learn important self-care skills. A mental health professional or other healthcare provider can connect them with resources available that can assist with this. State or federal services may also be available.

In the past, because of the weight given to IQ alone, people with scores between 70 and 85 were generally denied access to the services and support available to people with scores below 70. Today, however, there is more of an emphasis on an individual’s ability to function and manage daily living skills.

The determination of whether a person will or will not receive services depends upon many factors, some of which include:

• Whether there is another diagnosis. For example, an individual with autism spectrum disorder and an IQ of 75 may have significantly more difficulty with daily life activities than an individual with Down syndrome and the same IQ.
• Where the individual lives. Rules regarding agency services vary from state to state.
• The kind of support available to an individual. This is determined, in part, based on their living situation.
• If the individual has physical challenges that make it difficult for them to perform ordinary life skills. Some genetic disorders can cause both lowered IQs and also poor muscle tone, reduced coordination, and other physical issues.

Contacting one’s local Department of Health and Human Services is a good place to start when trying to determine the resources available to people with intellectual disabilities. Healthcare providers, including mental health practitioners, can assist with this as well.

Depression is a common cause of fatigue, so you might be wondering whether your fatigue is a result of depression. But just because you’re tired all the time doesn’t necessarily mean that you’re depressed.

The fact is there are many underlying conditions that could be responsible for feeling tired all the time. From mood disorders to issues affecting your physical health like chronic fatigue syndrome, the following psychiatric and medical conditions are some of the most common ailments associated with fatigue.

But first, it’s important to note that many of these conditions share symptoms similar to depression, so we’ll start there. By understanding the distinctions between depression and other factors that cause fatigue, you can seek out the right treatment and start to feel like your energetic self again.

Psychiatric Factors

Depression

Depression, which research suggests is associated with an imbalance of neurotransmitters in the brain, is commonly linked with fatigue. The condition is also associated with disturbed sleep, which can also significantly contribute to tiredness. While some people may have difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep, others may oversleep. Both of these sleep disturbances can leave you feeling apathetic and sluggish.

Other symptoms associated with depression include:

• Appetite and/or weight changes
• Difficulty thinking, concentrating, or making decisions
• Fatigue or loss of energy
• Feelings of guilt or worthlessness
• Lack of interest in activities normally enjoyed
• Persistent sad, anxious, or “empty” mood
• Thoughts of death or suicide

If you think you may be experiencing depression, talk to your doctor. They can refer you to a therapist who can help you manage your emotions or another mental health professional such as a psychiatrist who may also recommend antidepressants. Don’t let depression go untreated.

Anxiety

Anxiety and anxiety disorders are often associated with fatigue as well as sleep disturbances. Sleep deprivation may also contribute to feelings of anxiety, which perpetuates a cycle of both anxiety and sleeplessness. This, of course, can make it difficult to manage both conditions.

The following are common anxiety disorders that may be associated with sleep disruptions and fatigue:

• Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): Fatigue is a common symptom of GAD, which is characterized by excessive worry about a number of events and activities accompanied by a variety of physical and emotional symptoms.
• Social anxiety disorder (SAD): People with SAD have excessive fear about certain social situations that might expose them to possible scrutiny.
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): A person’s internal obsessions and compulsive behaviors can be draining and impact sleep. OCD and depression are often comorbid conditions.
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Flashbacks and nightmares are commonly associated with PTSD, which can develop following a traumatic event and lead to debilitating levels of anxiety. The increased arousal and anxiety as well as the sleep disturbances that are part of PTSD can leave one feeling depleted and tired.
• Panic disorder: The excessive worry associated with panic disorder can cause insomnia and fatigue. Those with panic disorders may also experience nocturnal panic attacks.
• Specific phobias: Those with specific phobias have an intense, usually irrational fear associated with a particular trigger.

Stress

Stress can lead to sleepless nights. Stress can also wear you down and cause you to feel fatigued. We’ve all experienced the repercussions of stress at one time or another. If left unmanaged, stress can also wreak havoc on your mood. Stress can be a trigger for depression and anxiety disorders.

Like anxiety, stress can contribute to poor sleep and poor sleep can create stress. For instance, you know that you need to get a good night’s sleep so that you have energy the next day, but you might have trouble falling asleep because you are worried that you aren’t going to get enough sleep.

Fortunately, there are many ways to combat stress that don’t require sleep aids or medications. mind-body techniques such as yoga nidra, or “yogic sleep,” and meditation can help you manage stress and sleep better so you can wake up feeling refreshed with more energy.

Bipolar Disorder

Bipolar disorder is characterized by extreme shifts in mood, energy, and activity. Insomnia, nightmares, and erratic sleep-wake cycles are common among people with bipolar disorder, contributing to fatigue and general tiredness.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common psychiatric condition among both children and adults and is commonly associated with a variety of sleep disturbances that can contribute to daytime sleepiness. Many of the medications used to treat ADHD can also impact sleep.

Sleep patterns and habits are usually assessed when treating ADHD. In fact, research has shown that interventions to improve sleep hygiene can help reduce the severity of ADHD symptoms and increase the person’s overall quality of life.

Physical Health Factors

Often, physical health issues such as thyroid problems and chronic fatigue syndrome can result in fatigue symptoms resembling depression. It’s also possible that fibromyalgia, sleep apnea, or an autoimmune disorder such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus could cause you to feel tired all the time.

Here are some physical factors that could be draining your energy and what you can do about it.

Underactive Thyroid

If you have an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) simple activities can leave you feeling wiped out. Your thyroid is a small gland in the front of your neck that produces hormones that regulate your metabolism. When it’s not producing enough of these hormones, your metabolism slows down. This can lead to fatigue, weight gain, and even depression.

The traditional treatment for hypothyroidism involves medications that increase thyroid levels in your body. Symptoms of fatigue may get better or go away once the thyroid condition has been treated appropriately with medication. To confirm the diagnosis, your doctor will use blood tests to look at your levels of thyroid hormones including thyroxine and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

Chronic fatigue syndrome, now known as myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), is a condition characterized by a reduction in the ability to engage in activities, along with profound fatigue. This is often accompanied by unrefreshing sleep, cognitive issues, and changes in blood pressure and pulse.

Those with chronic fatigue still have an interest in activities but lack the energy and capacity to do them. Because CFS shares symptoms with other medical and psychiatric illnesses, it is not uncommon for it to be diagnosed as depression or another psychiatric condition. People may also experience both CFS and a psychiatric condition at the same time.

Fibromyalgia

Fibromyalgia seems to overlap with chronic fatigue, but people with this disorder also have chronic pain all over their bodies. The disorder is usually diagnosed by tender points in certain muscles that respond with pain when touched a certain way. Sleep disturbance is also common in chronic fatigue and fibromyalgia. Research is ongoing into the causes of fibromyalgia. 

There is no specific test that can diagnose fibromyalgia. Instead, doctors must rely on an assessment of your health history and symptoms. Diagnosis typically requires the presence of widespread chronic pain, fatigue, and sleep disturbance. Treatment for fibromyalgia usually involves a combination of medication and lifestyle changes.

Autoimmune Disorders

Autoimmune disorders involve the immune system attacking the body. Rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and celiac disease are examples of autoimmune disorders. Autoimmune processes have also been implicated in certain types of diabetes and multiple sclerosis (MS).

While these conditions aren’t as common as depression, they can present with similar symptoms. In fact, according to some research, depression-like symptoms are present in up to 50% of patients with autoimmune disorders. These symptoms typically emerge over the course of the disease and are associated with psychosocial factors, chronic pain, and long periods of disability.

Dealing with an autoimmune disorder can also increase your risk of developing depression. Results of one large study showed that a prior hospital contact because of an autoimmune disease increased the subsequent risk of mood disorder diagnosis by 45%.

Sleep Apnea

Sleep disorders, such as obstructive sleep apnea, can also cause many symptoms similar to those of depression. Obstructive sleep apnea is a condition where your breathing is interrupted during sleep for longer than 10 seconds. This can happen many times an hour.

These frequent interruptions interfere with your sleep quality, resulting in daytime fatigue, morning headaches, and poor concentration. It can also have a serious impact on your mood. One study found that approximately 46% of people with sleep apnea have symptoms of depression.

Iron-Deficiency Anemia

Your body uses iron to make hemoglobin, the part of the red blood cell that carries oxygen to all the parts of your body.

When you don’t have enough iron, your blood can’t carry enough oxygen to your body. This can leave you feeling sluggish, fatigued, and lightheaded. You may also have dull or pale skin and experience headaches, dizziness, and shortness of breath. 

Dehydration and Inadequate Nutrition

Staying hydrated and getting proper nutrition is important for keeping your energy levels up. Research shows that a lack of fluid intake is associated with sleep issues, fatigue, and alertness.

Not getting enough calories in your diet can also leave you feeling tired all the time, as can eating too many refined carbohydrates or not getting enough protein. Allergies to foods such as wheat or dairy may also contribute to tiredness.

Lifestyle Factors

If you don’t seem to have enough energy, it could be because you’re not getting enough physical activity. Research shows a sedentary lifestyle can lead to fatigue and difficulty sleeping.

Cigarettes and alcohol can also affect sleep quality and leave you feeling groggy the next day.

Tips for More Energy

Depending on the severity of your symptoms and whether you’ve been diagnosed with a psychiatric or medical condition, there are a few habits anyone can do to improve their quality of sleep and have more energy the next day.

• Exercise regularly. There’s plenty of evidence to show that regular exercise is good for your mental and physical health. You’ll have more energy and sleep better, too.
• Take short naps. Tired as you may be, sleeping too much during the day can affect your ability to fall or stay asleep at night. Taking short, 20- to 30-minute naps can give you a quick burst of rest without hindering your ability to fall asleep at bedtime.
• Establish a bedtime routine. Prepare for slumber each night with rituals to help you unwind. Take a hot shower or bath, read a paperback book, or meditate to calm your body and mind. Follow your bedtime routine each night to set the stage for a solid night’s sleep. Be sure to make your bedroom as dark as possible, too.
• Avoid caffeine, alcohol, and other stimulants before bed. Drinking coffee, soda, or other caffeinated beverages in the late afternoon or evening can make it difficult to fall asleep and stay asleep, as can drinking alcohol. If you smoke cigarettes, consider quitting.
• Power down your devices. Leave the screens in another room. Scrolling before bedtime can make it more difficult for your mind to wind down and prepare for sleep. The light your device produces can also negatively impact your sleep. Make the bedroom a no-phone zone, if possible.

From the moment a child is born, important developmental processes begin to take place. Many of the early reflexes a child displays, like rooting to find food or startling in response to sound, serve as ways to learn more about the world around them. According to the theorist Jean Piaget, the earliest period of a child’s life helps set the stage for future development by helping children learn more about themselves, others, and the world around them.

Piaget’s theory suggests that children progress through a series of four different stages of cognitive development. These stages encompass numerous aspects of mental development including that reasoning, language, morals, and memory. Piaget believed that kids take an active role in this cognitive development, building knowledge as they interact with the world.

Keep reading to learn more about how sensorimotor development works, the six sub-stages that occur during this phase of development, and the important developments that occur.

An Overview of the Sensorimotor Stage

The sensorimotor stage is the period of development from birth through age two. During this initial phase of development, children utilize skills and abilities they were born with (such as looking, sucking, grasping, and listening) to learn more about the environment.

Babies are born with a limited range of abilities, but they use those skills to learn more about the world around them. While it might seem like an infant mostly eats and sleeps, their interactions with caregivers and their environment provide a wealth of information that supports their cognitive growth.

In other words, infants and young children experience the world and gain knowledge through their senses and motor movements. Through trial and error, children discover more about the world around them.

The abilities that an infant is born with—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch—combined with physical capabilities that continue to develop—including touching, grasping, and tasting—allow infants to interact and build awareness of themselves and what is around them. 

As children interact with their environments, they go through an astonishing amount of cognitive growth in a relatively short period of time—the sensorimotor stage lasts from birth to approximately age 2.

Stages of the Sensorimotor Stage

As any parent or caregiver can attest, a great deal of learning and development happens during the first two years of a child’s life. All of the changes that infants and toddlers go through during those first two years of life represent different aspects of this stage of development.

The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate sub-stages that are characterized by the development of a new skill:

Reflexes (0-1 month)

During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking.

Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)

This substage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a child may suck their thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.

Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)

During this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to intentionally repeat an action to trigger a response in the environment. For example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy and put it in their mouth.

Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months)

During this substage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child may also combine schemas in order to achieve the desired effect. Children begin exploring the environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of others.

The understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)

Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth substage. For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting attention from a caregiver.

Early Representational Thought (18-24 months)

Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to move towards understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.

Object Permanence in the Sensorimotor Stage

According to Piaget, developing object permanence is one of the most important accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage of development.

Imagine a game of peek-a-boo, for example. A very young infant will believe that the other person or object has actually vanished and will act shocked or startled when the object reappears. Older infants who understand object permanence will realize that the person or object continues to exist even when unseen.

This is a classic example of how, during this stage, an infant’s knowledge of the world is limited to their sensory perceptions and motor activities and how behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.

Supporting Healthy Sensorimotor Development

So, what can parents and caregivers do to help foster healthy cognitive development during the sensorimotor stage? 

Providing responsive care is essential. During this period of development, children learn many things, including whether they can trust those around them. This helps set the stage not only for further cognitive growth but also for other important developmental skills, including trust and secure attachment.

Other ways to support health sensorimotor development include:

• Playing with your child
• Talking to your child
• Giving your child opportunities to explore 
• Letting your child engage in self-led play
• Using sensory experiences to help your child learn about the world
• Looking at and reading books with textures a child can touch and feel

The trust vs. mistrust stage is the first stage of psychologist Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. It begins at birth and lasts until a child is around 18 months to two years old.

According to Erikson, this is the most important period of a child’s life, as it shapes their view of the world as well as their overall personality.

Erikson’s psychosocial development theory has seven other stages that span throughout a person’s lifetime. At each stage, people face conflicts that either result in psychological strengthening or weakening.

The Importance of Trust

Babies are almost entirely dependent on their caregivers. So, the ways that parents interact with their babies have a profound effect on a child’s health.

Erikson believed that early patterns of trust influence a child’s social and emotional development. If a child successfully develops trust, they will feel safe and secure in the world. According to his theory, a parent essentially shapes their child’s perception and future relationships.

However, it’s important to remember that trust and mistrust exist on a spectrum. People aren’t either completely trusting or completely mistrusting.

For example, there will be times when a baby’s needs go unmet. A healthy amount of mistrust of our environment as infants prepares us as adults to be cautious and self-protective when necessary.

The key is that an infant’s trustworthy relationships and interactions outweigh, for the most part, their untrustworthy ones. According to Erikson, this will give them a better sense of how to trust themselves and the world around them.

Trust vs. Mistrust Examples

The following are examples of what builds trust between an infant and caregiver:

• An infant’s caregivers create a safe environment in which the infant feels protected.
• A mother or father is attentive to their baby’s needs (the baby is fed regularly, given affection consistently, etc.).
• A parent reassures their infant when the infant is scared and comforts them when they are in distress.

An infant learns to depend on their caregivers, and in turn, learns that the world is safe and will take care of their needs.

The following are examples of what builds mistrust between an infant and caregiver:

• When an infant cries out, their caregiver isn’t available to meet their needs.
• A mother or father is inconsistent in feeding their infant.
• A caregiver doesn’t comfort the infant when they are scared or uncomfortable.
• The caregiver allows the infant’s environment to become unsafe, and as a result, the infant feels insecure and unsafe.

How To Build Trust

The primary way you can build trust with your baby is to respond when they try to communicate with you. Because babies can’t use words to express themselves, they use nonverbal strategies to communicate what they’re thinking and feeling at all times.

Crying is one of the most common strategies babies use to communicate with their caregivers, and it carries different meanings. Usually, babies cry to let you know that they need one of the following:

• Affection: Erikson believed that an infant’s cries communicated an important message to caregivers. Such cries indicate an unmet need, and it is up to caregivers to determine how to fulfill that need.
• Comfort: It is important for caregivers to provide comfort to an infant by holding them closely and securely. This provides both warmth and physical contact. Feeding, bathing, and comforting your child helps them learn to trust that their needs will be met.
• Food: Erikson also believed that feeding played a pivotal role in the development of trust. By feeding an infant when the child is hungry, they learn that they can trust their need for nourishment will be met.

Every baby communicates differently, so becoming familiar with your baby’s communication style is the key to success at this stage. Noticing and responding to these signals, whether they are cries, body movements, coos, or even words, helps them learn to trust you and the world around them.

Consequences of Mistrust

One study done with female twins, both identical and fraternal, concluded that a trusting personality seems to be at least in part genetic, while a mistrustful or distrusting personality seems to be learned from family and other social influences.

Children raised by consistently unreliable, unpredictable parents who fail to meet their basic needs eventually develop an overall sense of mistrust.

Children and adults with low levels of trust may be more likely to:

Mistrust can cause children to become fearful, confused, and anxious, making it difficult to form healthy relationships.

Research shows that being raised in an untrustworthy environment may actually make a child more trusting of untrustworthy people. Researchers believe this is due to an adaptive mechanism that makes it possible for a child to form an attachment bond to an untrustworthy caregiver.

For instance, studies have found that children who were previously in foster care homes where they were mistreated were more likely to display behavior such as sitting in a stranger’s lap or walking off with a stranger, whereas children who weren’t in foster care homes did not display this behavior.

Consequences of Over-Trusting

Interestingly, being overly-trusting is linked with the same negative consequences as being under-trusting.

Ultimately, children must experience trust, along with some degree of mistrust, in order to learn to trust in themselves and their relationships as adults.

Learning to Trust

If you experienced an unsafe environment or untrustworthy relationships as an infant, you may face difficulties with trust as an adult. But your childhood experiences don’t have to define you.

Research has found, for instance, that children who were neglected while in institutional care experienced significant improvements in their social and behavioral functioning once adopted into nurturing families.

The following are ways that may help you on your journey of shifting your mindset into a more trusting one:

• Show compassion: Showing yourself and others compassion and understanding may be helpful in improving trust. Compassion is a tool that serves to remind us that we are all human and we all struggle at times.
• Try mindfulness: Mindfulness practices such as meditation can teach you how to feel your emotions without judging them.
• Process feelings: Journaling, confiding in a trusted loved one, and letting yourself cry are just a few ways of emotional processing. You may find that a counselor or therapist is a valuable resource. For instance, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) focuses on helping people reframe old, limiting beliefs into new, proactive ones.
• Consider your environment: When healing from trauma, try to make your environment as safe as possible and interact with people who support you.

Final Thoughts

The trust versus mistrust stage serves as a foundation of development. The outcomes of this stage can influence the rest of childhood and adulthood in profound ways.

Of course, while it is essential for parents to provide responsive, dependable care, there’s no need to despair if you experienced mistrust as an infant. Human beings are adaptable, and it is possible to rebuild your sense of trust in yourself and in others.