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Dopamine is a neurotransmitter—a chemical in the body—that carries signals from the brain to the body. It is produced naturally in the brain and plays an important role in movement, cognition, reproduction, mood, learning, memory, sleep, and more.

Dopamine deficiency, in which too little dopamine is available or processed, can cause problematic changes in mood, memory, sleep, social behavior, and the many other processes that this neurotransmitter helps regulate. Dopamine performs these important functions despite making up only a small percentage—less than 1 percent —of the brain’s neurons.

Dopamine Deficiency Signs and Symptoms

With links to conditions like schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease, dopamine deficiency can cause similar symptoms, such as:

• Chronic back pain
• Persistent constipation
• Weight fluctuations
• Dysphagia or difficulty swallowing
• Sleep disorders
• Fatigue
• Attention difficulties
• Reduced sex drive
• Hallucinations and delusions
• Aspiration pneumonia
• Low moods

Causes of Dopamine Deficiency

Any number of factors might be responsible for low dopamine levels. These include sleep deprivation, obesity, drug abuse, saturated fat intake, and stress. Here’s a closer look at each.

Sleep Deprivation

Besides your morning coffee, dopamine is one of the reasons you feel refreshed and alert most mornings. This wakefulness is promoted by dopamine receptors—in particular, the D2 receptor. These receptors help mediate the functions of dopamine in the body.

However, sleep deprivation can reduce the number of D2 receptors in important areas of the brain, impeding dopamine transmission and production. In fact, with conditions such as Parkinson’s disease, many people lack sufficient dopamine and feel excessive daytime sleepiness.

Obesity

Among the other issues to which obesity has been linked is dopamine deficiency. Like sleep deprivation, obesity can lead to a reduction in D2 receptors. This becomes especially apparent when comparing the number of receptors in people who are and are not obese.

Drug Abuse

During early usage, certain drugs can contribute to an increase in dopamine. Cocaine, for example, produces euphoria and boosts dopamine levels. However, long-term use of these drugs is certain to offer diminishing returns, especially where dopamine production is concerned.

Saturated Fat

When you have fried chicken, buttered bread, chocolate, and other foods high in saturated fats, your brain understandably lights up with dopamine at all the pleasure you’re receiving from these foods.

However, these foods produce only short-term enjoyment. Over time, a high-fat diet disrupts central nervous system functioning and disrupts dopamine production, in turn leading to a deficit.

Stress

Stressors such as financial, relationship, workplace, and family life issues, can affect your body’s production of dopamine. Over time, this can lead to a deficiency.

Conditions Linked to Low Dopamine

A few of the conditions that can lead to low dopamine symptoms includes the following.

Major Depressive Disorder

Major depressive disorder is characterized by prolonged depressive moods or a lack of interest in activities that would ordinarily be appealing. This loss of interest is commonly referred to as anhedonia.

Both anhedonia and dopamine deficiency are related to a disruption in the mind’s reward process, which involves anticipation, motivation, and decision-making. Decreased levels of dopamine have been associated with major depressive disorders.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a severe mental health condition that can cause an abnormal interpretation of reality and, in turn, can affect a person’s ability to think and act. Some of its symptoms, such as hallucinations, delusions, and abnormal gait, can also be attributed to dopamine deficiency.

Parkinson’s Disease

Parkinson’s is a disorder of the nervous system. It is identifiable by tremors which may begin as barely noticeable, before progressing into obvious quivers, muscle stiffness, or delayed movement. This disorder may also cause problems with balance during motion.

Parkinson’s disease is the result of a number of factors, one of which is a reduction in the production of dopamine in the brain. When there is a dopamine deficit, this can cause the distinct movement difficulties associated with this condition.

How to Treat Low Dopamine Symptoms

Low dopamine levels can produce negative reactions throughout the body. Some things that you can do to fix low dopamine include getting regular exercise, eating foods that support dopamine production, consuming probiotics, and listening to music

Exercise

Working up a sweat by running, swimming, dancing, or other forms of movement, can help with increasing dopamine levels in the body. Studies carried out on animals have shown that certain portions of the brain are flushed with dopamine during physical activity. It is why exercising may sometimes produce a high.

Natural Sources

Your body’s supply of dopamine may be supported by external sources. Natural sources such as bananas, plantain, and avocado have been found to contain high levels of dopamine. Apples, eggplant, spinach, and tomatoes have also been recognized as dopamine sources. Proteins are also notable components in the dopamine production process.

Probiotics

Probiotics may get more notice for promoting gut health, but this bacteria is not only an important part of the body’s microbiome, it may also be useful for the production of dopamine and other neurotransmitters.

Music

Music has been shown to stimulate dopamine production in the brain, generating the familiar feelings of pleasure and excitement you experience when you listen.

A malignant narcissist is an abusive person who finds pleasure in lying, manipulating, and using other people in order to get the things that they want.

Narcissism is a personality trait recognized throughout history, but awareness of narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) and narcissistic personality in popular culture has grown. As a result, people may wonder whether they are dealing with someone who is selfish, thoughtless, or overly power-seeking—or if they are dealing with someone with a true disorder.

This article discusses what it means to be a malignant narcissist and how to spot the signs. It also explores what causes this type of behavior and what you can do to protect yourself from a malignant narcissist.

Types of Narcissism

Malignant narcissism is one of several different types of narcissism. The five main types are:

1. Overt narcissism
2. Covert narcissism
3. Communal narcissism
4. Antagonistic narcissism
5. Malignant narcissism

Malignant narcissism is considered by many to be the most severe type. That’s why it helps to recognize when you have someone with this condition in your life and what to expect from interactions with them. This knowledge can also provide insight into how to deal with them in the healthiest way possible.

What It Means to Be a Malignant Narcissist

Beyond the desire to focus primarily on themselves and be held in high regard by virtually everyone in their lives, people with malignant narcissism tend to have a darker side to their self-absorption. These individuals can be highly manipulative and don’t care who they hurt as long as they get their own way.

Although there is only one official diagnosis for narcissism (narcissistic personality disorder), there are different types. Someone with grandiose narcissism, for instance, requires excessive praise and attention; while someone with vulnerable narcissism tends to have a lot of anxiety and need a lot of supportive attention.

So how does malignant narcissism differ from narcissism? The primary difference is that while narcissism involves symptoms of grandiosity and low empathy for others, a malignant narcissist tends to have more severe symptoms as well as symptoms of other co-occurring personality disorders.

Among the different types, people with malignant narcissism are by far the most harmful to others. Social psychologist Erich Fromm, who first coined the term malignant narcissism, called people with this type “the quintessence of evil.”

People with this subtype contain the general traits of NPD, including regular egocentricity. They also have antisocial traits and even a sadistic streak, as well as a poor sense of self and lack of empathy. There is often some paranoia involved with malignant narcissism as well. 

Signs Someone Is a Malignant Narcissist

Signs and symptoms of narcissistic personality disorder (and the severity of these symptoms) vary. But the following are common characteristics of malignant narcissists:

• Preoccupied with fantasies about beauty, brilliance, success, and power
• Unable to handle criticism
• Tendency to lash out if they feel slighted
• Likely to take advantage of others to get what they want
• Overly concerned about their appearance
• Expect to be treated as superior and craves this validation, also known as narcissistic supply
• Lack of empathy for others
• Inflated sense of self and inability to self-regulate
• Have no remorse for hurting others and no interest in apologizing unless it benefits them
• Have an attitude of deserving the best of everything
• Tendency to monopolize conversations and/or mistreat those who they perceive as inferior
• Hidden insecurity and a weak sense of self
• Tendency to blame others for their own bad behavior

Additional signs of malignant narcissism can include:

• Seeing the world in black-and-white terms, including seeing others as either friend or foe
• Seeking to win at all costs, leaving a great amount of pain, frustration, and even heartache in their wake
• Not caring about the pain they cause others—or maybe even enjoying it and experiencing it as empowering
• Doing what it takes to protect themselves from loss, inconvenience, or failing to get what they want in any situation

Causes of Malignant Narcissism

The reasons a person becomes a malignant narcissist is not known. As with most mental health disorders, NPD can develop as a result of a combination of factors. For instance, the following childhood experiences can contribute to the development of NPD:

Evidence shows that having a close relative with NPD can increase the risk of developing the condition as well. It’s also possible that neurobiology may play a role. According to research published in 2021, some patients with NPD have been found to have altered grey and white brain matter.

Diagnosing a Malignant Narcissist

While malignant narcissism isn’t recognized as an official diagnosis in the DSM-5, the standard for diagnosis of psychiatric conditions, mental health experts often use this term to describe a combination of the following:

• Antisocial personality disorder (APD)
• Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD)
• Aggression and sadism (toward self, others, or both)
• Paranoia

Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)

According to the DSM-5, a person with APD must be at least 18 years old and have a pattern of disregard for the rights of others, including at least three of the following:

• Disregard for the safety of the self and others
• Failure to obey laws or social norms
• Impulsive behavior
• Irritability and aggression
• Lack of remorse for actions
• Lying or manipulating others for profit or amusement
• Pattern of irresponsibility

Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD)

The following is an abbreviated summary of the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for NPD:

• A grandiose sense of self-importance
• Persistent fantasies about unlimited success and power
• A belief that they are “special” and unique and can only be understood by or should associate with similar high-status people and organizations
• A constant need for attention, admiration, and praise
• A sense of entitlement and expectation of special treatment
• A tendency to use others for their own needs or wants
• A lack of empathy or unwillingness/inability to recognize and honor the needs and feelings of others
• Proneness to envy or having a belief that they are envied by others
• A sense of arrogance shown in behaviors and/or attitudes

Narcissism vs. NPD

It’s important to note that not all narcissistic traits necessarily indicate a personality disorder which, according to the American Psychiatric Association (APA), involves at least two of the following four areas:

• Affective (ways of responding emotionally)
• Cognitive (ways of thinking about oneself and others)
• Impulse control (ways of controlling one’s behavior)
• Interpersonal (ways of relating to others)

Even if your loved one isn’t officially diagnosed with NPD, narcissistic behaviors can still be difficult to deal with and have a negative impact on your relationship.

Treatment for Malignant Narcissism

Treating malignant narcissism can be challenging, especially since people with NPD often fail to follow through with treatment—if they seek treatment at all.

Therapy

Counseling or therapy is the most common treatment for NPD. If you or someone you care about has narcissistic personality disorder, there are certain therapies that may be helpful. Although there is relatively limited data on this topic, the therapeutic approaches often applied include:

Medication

There are no medications specifically to treat NPS, but medications may be prescribed to improve symptoms like anger, irritability, and paranoia that sometimes accompany NPD. They might also be prescribed to treat co-occurring psychiatric disorders such as bipolar disorder, substance use disorder, and other personality disorders.

Depending on the symptoms and other mental health issues at play, medications that may be prescribed can include:

How to Deal With a Malignant Narcissist

How does one deal with NPD in a loved one or in someone they must deal with, like a boss or co-worker? Here are a few tips that can help:

• Put some distance between you and them. Maintaining distance may be challenging as people with narcissistic traits tend to have little respect for boundaries. As a result, they may resent when you try to set and enforce them, but it is healthier for you.
• Don’t try to change them and don’t expect them to change or you might be disappointed. As a direct result of the symptoms, few people with narcissistic personality disorder recognize the need for treatment and seek help.
• Know that if you challenge them directly, they will likely retaliate. This doesn’t mean that you must agree with whatever the person with narcissism asks of you, but you may want to find less confrontational ways to communicate your boundaries or disagreements.
• If you do need to confront the person, try not to do so in front of a large audience. Confronting someone with narcissism in front of others may make them want to save face. It can also cause them to feel more threatened, sparking retaliation.
• Surround yourself with supportive people as much as possible. Use your support group to absorb some of the negativity you may experience with this person.

Malignant narcissists lack empathy, demand constant attention, and are only concerned with their own needs. Because of this, malignant narcissists cannot truly love other people. What they might confuse with love, or what their partners might take as love, is just a way for them to pursue their own happiness and fulfill their own desires.

When to Seek Help

Because NPD can impact personal relationships, getting help may improve the quality of their interactions with others. Though, in the end, it is up to them whether they seek help and if they put in the work to get the most benefits possible.

Whether or not your loved one is receiving treatment for their condition, you may want to consider speaking with a mental health professional yourself. In addition to helping you better understand their narcissistic behaviors, a therapist can help you develop coping strategies to protect your mental and emotional well-being.

Happiness is something that people seek to find, yet what defines happiness can vary from one person to the next. Typically, happiness is an emotional state characterized by feelings of joy, satisfaction, contentment, and fulfillment. While happiness has many different definitions, it is often described as involving positive emotions and life satisfaction. 

When most people talk about the true meaning of happiness, they might be talking about how they feel in the present moment or referring to a more general sense of how they feel about life overall.

Because happiness tends to be such a broadly defined term, psychologists and other social scientists typically use the term ‘subjective well-being‘ when they talk about this emotional state. Just as it sounds, subjective well-being tends to focus on an individual’s overall personal feelings about their life in the present.  

Two key components of happiness (or subjective well-being) are:

• The balance of emotions: Everyone experiences both positive and negative emotions, feelings, and moods. Happiness is generally linked to experiencing more positive feelings than negative ones.
• Life satisfaction: This relates to how satisfied you feel with different areas of your life including your relationships, work, achievements, and other things that you consider important.

Another definition of happiness comes from the ancient philosopher Aristotle, who suggested that happiness is the one human desire, and all other human desires exist as a way to obtain happiness. He believed that there were four levels of happiness: happiness from immediate gratification, from comparison and achievement, from making positive contributions, and from achieving fulfillment. 

Signs of Happiness

While perceptions of happiness may be different from one person to the next, there are some key signs that psychologists look for when measuring and assessing happiness.

Some key signs of happiness include:

• Feeling like you are living the life you wanted
• Going with the flow and a willingness to take life as it comes
• Feeling that the conditions of your life are good
• Enjoying positive, healthy relationships with other people
• Feeling that you have accomplished (or will accomplish) what you want in life
• Feeling satisfied with your life
• Feeling positive more than negative
• Being open to new ideas and experiences
• Practicing self-care and treating yourself with kindness and compassion
• Experiencing gratitude
• Feeling that you are living life with a sense of meaning and purpose
• Wanting to share your happiness and joy with others

Happy people still feel the whole range of human emotions—anger, frustrastion, boredom, loneliness, and even sadness—from time to time. But even when faced with discomfort, they have an underlying sense of optimism that things will get better, that they can deal with what is happening, and that they will be able to feel happy again.

“Even people who have experienced terrible trauma can still also experience happiness,” says Hannah Owens, LMSW, “though it is important to recognize that it might be more difficult for them to obtain the balance generally associated with overall happiness, and that their happiness might look very different from others’ who have not had to deal with such challenges.”

Types of Happiness

There are many different ways of thinking about happiness. For example, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle made a distinction between two different kinds of happiness: hedonia and eudaimonia.

• Hedonia: Hedonic happiness is derived from pleasure. It is most often associated with doing what feels good, self-care, fulfilling desires, experiencing enjoyment, and feeling a sense of satisfaction.
• Eudaimonia: This type of happiness is derived from seeking virtue and meaning. Important components of eudaimonic well-being including feeling that your life has meaning, value, and purpose. It is associated more with fulfilling responsibilities, investing in long-term goals, concern for the welfare of other people, and living up to personal ideals.

Hedonia and eudemonia are more commonly known today in psychology as pleasure and meaning, respectively. More recently, psychologists have suggested the addition of the third component that relates to engagement. These are feelings of commitment and participation in different areas of life.

Research suggests that happy people tend to rank pretty high on eudaimonic life satisfaction and better than average on their hedonic life satisfaction. 

For example, volunteering for a cause you believe in might be more meaningful than pleasurable. Watching your favorite tv show, on the other hand, might rank lower in meaning and higher on pleasure.

Some types of happiness that may fall under these three main categories include:

• Joy: A often relatively brief feeling that is felt in the present moment
• Excitement: A happy feeling that involves looking forward to something with positive anticipation
• Gratitude: A positive emotion that involves being thankful and appreciative
• Pride: A feeling of satisfaction in something that you have accomplished
• Optimism: This is a way of looking at life with a positive, upbeat outlook
• Contentment: This type of happiness involves a sense of satisfaction

How to Cultivate Happiness

While some people just tend to be naturally happier, there are things that you can do to cultivate your sense of happiness. 

Pursue Intrinsic Goals 

Achieving goals that you are intrinsically motivated to pursue, particularly ones that are focused on personal growth and community, can help boost happiness. Research suggests that pursuing these types of intrinsically-motivated goals can increase happiness more than pursuing extrinsic goals like gaining money or status.

Enjoy the Moment

Studies have found that people tend to over earn—they become so focused on accumulating things that they lose track of actually enjoying what they are doing.

So, rather than falling into the trap of mindlessly accumulating to the detriment of your own happiness, focus on practicing gratitude for the things you have and enjoying the process as you go. 

Reframe Negative Thoughts

When you find yourself stuck in a pessimistic outlook or experiencing negativity, look for ways that you can reframe your thoughts in a more positive way. 

Reframing these negative perceptions isn’t about ignoring the bad. Instead, it means trying to take a more balanced, realistic look at events. It allows you to notice patterns in your thinking and then challenge negative thoughts.

Avoid Social Comparison

Another way to cultivate happiness and to make sure that you are able to maintain your happiness, Owens says, is to stop comparing yourself to others.

“No two lives are alike, and focusing on what others have is a sure-fire way to feel envy and regret. Focus on the good things in your own life, and you’ll be more likely to find contentment in them,” she says.

Impact of Happiness

Why is happiness so important? Happiness has been shown to predict positive outcomes in many different areas of life including mental well-being, physical health, and overall longevity.

• Positive emotions increase satisfaction with life.
• Happiness helps people build stronger coping skills and emotional resources.
• Positive emotions are linked to better health and longevity. One study found that people who experienced more positive emotions than negative ones were more likely to have survived over a 13 year period.
• Positive feelings increase resilience. Resilience helps people better manage stress and bounce back better when faced with setbacks. For example, one study found that happier people tend to have lower levels of the stress hormone cortisol and that these benefits tend to persist over time.
• People who report having a positive state of well-being are more likely to engage in healthy behaviors such as eating fruits and vegetables and engaging in regular physical exercise.
• Being happy may make help you get sick less often. Happier mental states are linked to increased immunity.

How to Be a Happier Person

Some people seem to have a naturally higher baseline for happiness—one large-scale study of more than 2,000 twins suggested that around 50% of overall life satisfaction was due to genetics, 10% to external events, and 40% to individual activities.

So while you might not be able to control what your “base level” of happiness is, there are things that you can do to make your life happier and more fulfilling. Even the happiest of individuals can feel down from time to time and happiness is something that all people need to consciously pursue.

Cultivate Strong Relationships

Social support is an essential part of well-being. Research has found that good social relationships are the strongest predictor of happiness. Having positive and supportive connections with people you care about can provide a buffer against stress, improve your health, and help you become a happier person.

In the Harvard Study of Adult Development, a longitudinal study that looked at participants over 80 years, researchers found that relationships and how happy people are in those relationships strongly impacted overall health.

Get Regular Exercise

Exercise is good for both your body and mind. Physical activity is linked to a range of physical and psychological benefits including improved mood. Numerous studies have shown that regular exercise may play a role in warding off symptoms of depression, but evidence also suggests that it may also help make people happier, too.

In one analysis of past research on the connection between physical activity and happiness, researchers found a consistent positive link.

Show Gratitude

In one study, participants were asked to engage in a writing exercise for 10 to 20 minutes each night before bed. Some were instructed to write about daily hassles, some about neutral events, and some about things they were grateful for. The results found that people who had written about gratitude had increase positive emotions, increased subjective happiness, and improve life satisfaction.

As the authors of the study suggest, keeping a gratitude list is a relatively easy, affordable, simple, and pleasant way to boost your mood. Try setting aside a few minutes each night to write down or think about things in your life that you are grateful for.

Find a Sense of Purpose

Research has found that people who feel like they have a purpose have better well-being and feel more fulfilled. A sense of purpose involves seeing your life as having goals, direction, and meaning. It may help improve happiness by promoting healthier behaviors. 

Some things you can do to help find a sense of purpose include:

• Explore your interests and passions
• Engage in prosocial and altruistic causes
• Work to address injustices
• Look for new things you might want to learn more about

This sense of purpose is influenced by a variety of factors, but it is also something that you can cultivate. It involves finding a goal that you care deeply about that will lead you to engage in productive, positive actions in order to work toward that goal.

Challenges of Finding Happiness

While seeking happiness is important, there are times when the pursuit of life satisfaction falls short. Some challenges to watch for include:

Valuing the Wrong Things

Money may not be able to buy happiness, but there is research that spending money on things like experiences can make you happier than spending it on material possessions. 

One study, for example, found that spending money on things that buy time—such as spending money on time-saving services—can increase happiness and life satisfaction.

Rather than overvaluing things such as money, status, or material possessions, pursuing goals that result in more free time or enjoyable experiences may have a higher happiness reward.

Not Seeking Social Support

Social support means having friends and loved ones that you can turn to for support. Research has found that perceived social support plays an important role in subjective well-being. For example, one study found that perceptions of social support were responsible for 43% of a person’s level of happiness.

It is important to remember that when it comes to social support, quality is more important than quantity. Having just a few very close and trusted friends will have a greater impact on your overall happiness than having many casual acquaintances.

Thinking of Happiness as an Endpoint

Happiness isn’t a goal that you can simply reach and be done with. It is a constant pursuit that requires continual nurturing and sustenance.

One study found that people who tend to value happiness most also tended to feel the least satisfied with their lives. Essentially, happiness becomes such a lofty goal that it becomes virtually unattainable. 

“Valuing happiness could be self-defeating because the more people value happiness, the more likely they will feel disappointed,” suggest the authors of the study.

It is also important to consider how you personally define happiness. Happiness is a broad term that means different things to different people. Rather than looking at happiness as an endpoint, it can be more helpful to think about what happiness really means to you and then work on small things that will help you become happier. This can make achieving these goals more manageable and less overwhelming.

History of Happiness

Happiness has long been recognized as a critical part of health and well-being. The “pursuit of happiness” is even given as an inalienable right in the U.S. Declaration of Independence. Our understanding of what will bring happiness, however, has shifted over time.

Psychologists have also proposed a number of different theories to explain how people experience and pursue happiness. These theories include:

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The hierarchy of needs suggests that people are motivated to pursue increasingly complex needs. Once more basic needs are fulfilled, people are then motivated by more psychological and emotional needs.

At the peak of the hierarchy is the need for self-actualization, or the need to achieve one’s full potential. The theory also stresses the importance of peak experiences or transcendent moments in which a person feels deep understanding, happiness, and joy. 

Positive Psychology

The pursuit of happiness is central to the field of positive psychology. Psychologists who study positive psychology are interested in learning ways to increase positivity and helping people live happier, more satisfying lives. 

Rather than focusing on mental pathologies, the field instead strives to find ways to help people, communities, and societies improve positive emotions and achieve greater happiness.

Transformational leadership is a leadership style that can inspire positive changes in those who follow. Transformational leaders are generally energetic, enthusiastic, and passionate. Not only are these leaders concerned and involved in the process, but they are also focused on helping every member of the group succeed.

Transformational leaders take control of situations by conveying a clear vision of the group’s goals. These leaders have a marked passion for the work and an ability to make the rest of the group feel recharged and energized.

Transformational leaders focus on helping members of the group support one another and provide them with the support, guidance, and inspiration they need to work hard, perform well, and stay loyal to the group. The primary goals of transformational leadership are to inspire growth, promote loyalty, and instill confidence in group members.

This article discusses the characteristics of transformational leadership and its effects on groups.

History of Transformational Leadership

The concept of transformational leadership was initially introduced by leadership expert and presidential biographer James MacGregor Burns. According to Burns, transformational leadership can be seen when “leaders and followers make each other advance to a higher level of moral and motivation.”

Later, researcher Bernard M. Bass expanded upon Burns’s original ideas to develop what is today referred to as Bass’s Transformational Leadership Theory. According to Bass, transformational leadership can be defined based on the impact that it has on followers. Transformational leaders, Bass suggested, garner trust, respect, and admiration from their followers.

Components of Transformational Leadership

Bass also suggested that there were four different components of transformational leadership. The four main elements of transformational leadership are:

1. Intellectual stimulation: Transformational leaders not only challenge the status quo; they also encourage creativity among followers. The leader encourages followers to explore new ways of doing things and new opportunities to learn.
2. Individualized consideration: Transformational leadership also involves supporting and encouraging individual followers. To foster supportive relationships, transformational leaders keep lines of communication open so that followers feel free to share ideas and so that leaders can offer immediate recognition of the unique contributions of each follower.
3. Inspirational motivation: Transformational leaders have a clear vision that they can articulate to followers. These leaders can also help followers experience the same passion and motivation to fulfill these goals.
4. Idealized influence: The transformational leader serves as a role model for followers. Because followers trust and respect the leader, they emulate this individual and internalize their ideals.

Groups led by this type of leader tend to be both successful and loyal. They give a lot to the team and care deeply about the group’s ability to accomplish its goals. Turnover tends to be relatively low as transformational leaders can inspire a great deal of commitment in their followers.

Transformational Leadership Traits

So what are some typical signs of a transformational leader? Common characteristics of transformational leaders include:

Examples of Transformational Leadership

Recognizable figures who are often cited as examples of transformational leadership include:

• Barack Obama: The former U.S. President was known for his transformational approach to running his administration, as well as his unifying, motivating, and hopeful communication style.
• Nelson Mandela: The former President of South Africa was famous for serving as a source of authentic inspiration.
• Oprah Winfrey: The media mogul is famous for her charismatic, visionary, and inspirational leadership style.
• Steve Jobs: Jobs was famous for his visionary leadership that transformed Apple into a leader in the technology industry.

Effects of Transformational Leadership

In their classic text, Transformational Leadership, authors Bass and Riggio explained that these leaders inspire people to achieve extraordinary results. Group members are not just encouraged to participate; they are also inspired to become leaders themselves.

Transformational leaders can accomplish this by being responsive and empowering. The individual’s goals become better aligned with the purposes of the entire group so that each group member’s success furthers the organization’s goals.

Researchers have found that this style of leadership can have a positive effect on the group. Some of these effects include:

• Better performance: Those led by transformational individuals have better performance and are more satisfied than those in groups with different types of leaders.
• Better well-being: Employees who identified a higher level of transformational leadership in their employers also reported higher levels of well-being. The effect stayed significant even after researchers controlled for factors linked to well-being, such as job strain, education, and age.
• Sense of empowerment: This is attributed to the fact that transformational leaders believe that their followers can do their best, leading group members to feel inspired and empowered.

The transformational style of leadership can be highly effective when used appropriately, but it might not necessarily be the best choice for every situation. In some cases, groups may require a more managerial or autocratic style that involves closer control and greater direction, particularly in situations where group member are unskilled and need a lot of oversight.

How to Become a More Transformational Leader

Becoming a more transformational leader may provide many benefits. Researchers believe that such results can help companies develop leadership training programs that can be used to teach transformational leadership skills.

Acquiring communication skills such as resolving workplace conflicts and recognizing employees’ needs are important parts of transformational leadership. Such programs can serve as essential parts of health promotion efforts in the workplace to help improve employee well-being.

What can you do to become a more transformational leader? Leadership experts suggest that a robust and positive future vision plays a critical role. Not only is it essential to believe in this vision yourself, but you’ve also got to inspire others to buy into your vision as well.

One way to improve your own leadership skills is to assess your own current leadership style and think about ways in which your strengths can benefit the group you are leading. By evaluating your own skills, you will be better able to play to your strengths and work on improving your areas of weakness.

Transformational Leadership vs. Transactional Leadership

Transformational leadership is often contrasted with transactional leadership, which is a style that is essentially the opposite of transformational. In the transactional approach, leaders motivate their subordinates through the use of rewards and punishment.

While the transformational approach focuses on communication, inspiration, and positive reinforcement, transactional leaders supervise, monitor performance, and create routines to maximize efficiency. While the transactional approach can be effective in some situations, it does not foster loyalty, innovation, or creativity.

Potential Pitfalls of Transformational Leadership

While transformational leadership is often viewed as one of the best approaches to leadership, that doesn’t mean that it is necessarily right for every situation. For example, when group members need more guidance and direction, it can be more effective to utilize a more transactional approach.

The transformational style can help improve group cohesion and commitment, but it can also contribute to burnout when group members feel constantly pressured to give up all of their time and effort to support the goals of the group.

In situations where a lot of creativity and innovation are important to success, a transformational style is often a beneficial approach. But if the focus is on achieving a prescribed set of short-term goals, taking a more transactional approach might lead to less chaos and better results.

Are You a Transformational Leader?

Try our fast and free quiz to find out if you tend towards transformational leadership or one of the other styles.

This leadership styles quiz was reviewed by Rachel Goldman, PhD, FTOS.

Everyone dreams, and some types of dreams tend to be a universal phenomenon—like dreaming about falling, being late for a test, and yes, even sex. Sexual dreams are actually completely normal and very common.

One older survey suggested that around one in five dreams is erotic. According to a study conducted by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, around 8% of all dreams involve some type of sexual activity.

While such evidence has shortcomings, it still shows that sex is definitely on the brain—even when we are sleeping.

“Sex dreams allow your curiosity to cathartically express itself, but in a safe way that hurts nobody,” explains Cheung. “The only time to worry is if you have repeated sex dreams most nights and are also thinking about cheating and having sex constantly during the day. If this is the case, seek out your therapist for advice.”

Keep reading to find some common sexual dreams and studies that have looked into what your sex dreams might mean.

The Most Common Sexual Dreams

If you’ve been having erotic dreams, you’re probably wondering whether your dreams are common or not. Most likely, you’re not alone as many people tend to have similar dreams. So, let’s take a look at some of the most common sex dreams.

Cheating on Your Partner

If you’ve ever had sexual dreams where you find yourself cheating on your significant other, don’t worry. This dream is actually quite common and can occur whether you’re married or unmarried.

Maybe not surprisingly, in another dream study, people that scored higher in terms of romantic jealousy, had more dreams where their partner was cheating on them. It’s also possible that men have more dreams where they cheat on a partner.

Another study surveyed 470 men and 575 women, all of whom were in a romantic relationship, found that men were more likely to report dreaming of someone other than their partner, especially an acquaintance.

It also revealed that higher relationship satisfaction made people in relationships more likely to dream about their partners, and those in shorter-term relationships with lower satisfaction rates were more likely to have dreams that featured a former partner.

Sex With Your Partner

On the flip side, it’s also quite common to have sexual dreams about your current partner. According to dream analyst Lauri Quinn Loewenberg, this could mean that you’re obviously attracted to them but also that there’s something else at play in your relationship.

“Having a sex dream with your partner can mean that you have recently connected on some level intellectually, spiritually, psychologically, [or] emotionally,” Loewenberg explains. Or it may signal the opposite, where it’s touching on a need to reconnect, “particularly if you have that dream when you’re either going through a dry spell or rocky period,” she explains.

Sex With a Boss or Authority Figure

According to the Sleep Foundation, dreams about having sex with a boss or someone in charge could mean that you are seeking their approval. That said, if you’re spending a lot of time with that person, or even having to spend a lot of time thinking about that person, the stress of their needs at your job could just be causing them to pop up everywhere.

Same-Sex Dreams

Cheung explains that, while same-sex dreams can feel disorienting if you’re not normally attracted to your sex, they’re completely normal.

“They are very common and entirely normal,” says Cheung. “The interpretation lies in what the other woman or man in your dream represents to you.”

Cheung explains that when people dream about things that are uncommon to them, it can be a sign that their brain is focusing on qualities that they wish they possessed themselves.

Multiple Partners

According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, both genders reported more sexual dreams involving multiple partners at once. Cheung cited this study as well, explaining that this is an area where gender stereotypes can come into play.

“Gender stereotypes do perhaps transfer to choice of a dream partner, with women tending to dream about sex in a more intimate and personal way, meaning their dream lover is as significant as the dream sex,” explains Cheung. “But men tend to focus more on the dream sex rather than who they are actually having sex with in a dream, hence men dreaming more about sex with strangers or multiple partners.”

Research also suggests that men dream about sex more frequently than women in general. Married men appear to dream about sex less than single men, while married women dream about sex more than single women.

Sex With an Ex

Evidence suggests that sexual dreams about your ex are common. Fortunately, this typically isn’t something you have to worry about. Especially if you’re in another relationship, your mind could just be grouping together similar experiences from the past.

Cheung says that sexual dreams about an ex might suggest that you’ve moved on from them and are ready to use the lessons you learned from that relationship in your new one.

“It can indicate that something is missing from your current relationship, but it could simply be that you’re not spending enough personal quality time together and your intimacy needs are not being met,” says Cheung. “This dream could also have nothing to do with relationships and suggest something missing from other areas of your life, perhaps a sense of adventure.”

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Theories That Help Explain Sexual Dreams

Dream theories are important because they reflect research that aims to determine whether or not dreams have anything to do with real-life issues. They hope to help people better understand why they might have the same recurring themes within their dreams and what these themes can tell them about their life. This also applies to sexual dreams.

Continuity Theory

The continuity theory suggests that people’s thoughts and actions in dreams are a continuation of their actions in real life. This is also true for common themes and familiar faces from a person’s waking life.

Basically, all of these familiar things continue to pop up when people dream. One study even showed that how people react to an event in a dream aligns with how they would respond to that event if it were to occur in real life.

According to this theory, your reactions and responses in dreams, including your sexual dreams, is consistent with the person you when you are awake.

Non-Continuity Theory

This is when dreams get a little crazier. The non-continuity theory comes into play if your dreams start showing fictional people or timelines in your life begin to intermingle somehow.

Examples of sexual dreams that exhibit this theory would be if a person dreams about having sex with someone (like, say, their boss) whom they would never have sex with in real life, either due to lack of attraction or inability (like with a famous person).

Others think that these types of dreams could help people make potentially important associations about the patterns of things that they continually find themselves doing in real life.

In other words, if you’re frustrated with how you respond to something in real life and you find yourself dreaming about it consistently, it may be a sign that you need to start working on that in your daily life.

Why These Theories Matter

Psychologists think that both of these dream theories play an important role in our mental health. They show the cognitive connection and disconnection between our dreams and real life.

Sexual Dreams and Stress

Research suggests that dream recall tends to be more common when people are stressed. During the COVID-19 pandemic, people who reported having worse mental health during that time also reported more vividly recalling their dreams. While more research is needed, this may indicate that people are more likely to dream and remember these dreams when stressed.

So if you are having more sexual dreams, it might be a sign that something is happening in your life that needs to be addressed. This might be stress related to your relationship, or it might be other forms of anxiety and stress related to your work, health, finances, or other concerns.

Coping With Sexual Dreams

If you are having recurrent sexual dreams and want to stop having them, there are a few steps you can take. 

• Practice good sleep habits: Make sure you use good sleep practices like going to bed and waking at the same time each day, avoiding technology before bedtime, and maintaining a comfortable sleep environment.
• Evaluate your dreams: Consider the content of your sexual dreams and what they might mean. If there is some need that isn’t being met, think about the ways that you can address the need in your daily life.
• Manage your stress: Try to minimize your stress levels during the day and use effective relaxation strategies to help calm your mind and body before bedtime.

If your sexual dreams are distressing and connected to past trauma, talk to a licensed mental health professional. Nightmares are common in people with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), so working with a trauma-informed therapist can help you get the treatment and help you need.

Most of us have a lot going on in our heads during sex. But it’s not just all those thoughts and feelings bopping around in our heads—what’s actually going on at the neurological level can have a big impact on your sexual experiences.

The term ‘mind-blowing orgasm’ exists for a reason—it isn’t just a physical experience. While our body is being stimulated, our brain is being stimulated as well. This leads to the increased release of certain neurotransmitters, including dopamine, oxytocin, and norepinephrine.

The Brain During Foreplay

Before things even start heating up, the brain and body are already coming alive. The genital sensory cortex, the part of the brain responsible for communicating back and forth with the genitals, begins firing.

In women, the clitoris, vagina, and cervix each activate slightly different parts of the brain. The perineal (groin) region is also stimulated in the process of stimulating the clitoris, vagina, or cervix, something that was only discovered recently.

Since each of these parts can lead to orgasm on its own, combining stimulation in more than one of these areas can lead to a more intense orgasm. Men can only achieve orgasm from the penis, meaning there are also fewer areas of the brain affected/lit up than in women.

The Brain During Arousal

As things start to get more heated, touch leads to arousal and the front medial lobe of the brain turns on. This is the part of the brain that is responsible for initiating sexual behavior. 

Meanwhile, the continued stimulation activates the hippocampus, which manages our memories. So, we may associate certain sights and smells with past sexual encounters or fantasize about past encounters to turn up our arousal levels. This part of the brain also assigns emotional significance to the incoming erotic stimuli.

The amygdala, which governs both the fight-or-flight response and human sexual drive, starts getting involved as one becomes more aroused. It acts as a sexual control center. Once stimuli are assigned an emotional relevance, they are then communicated to the prefrontal cortex, which modulates sex drive.

The amygdala is so important to sex drive that lesions on it can lead to abnormal hypersexual states. This is what occurs with Kluver-Bucy syndrome.

The Brain Right Before Orgasm

As we approach orgasm, it’s not just our genitals that are active. Our cerebellum—the part of the brain that controls our body’s movements—sends signals to our thighs, glutes, and abs to begin tensing.

This muscle tension contributes to orgasm by increasing blood flow to the area and increasing nerve activity. In turn, this sends signals back to the brain to be aroused.

The frontal cortex also joins in on the fun pre-orgasm. This part of the brain is associated with planning and more abstract thought. Therefore, it may be responsible for our mind wandering to sexual fantasies just before we reach orgasm.

During this stage, the anterior cingulate cortex, which is thought to be involved in modulating pain, also turns on. Its orgasmic role is to inhibit pain so that all we feel is pleasure. 

The Brain During Orgasm

Several things happen to the brain during orgasm. For instance, climaxing turns off the part of the orbitofrontal cortex that is responsible for decision-making, which can lead to feeling out of control. This may result in seemingly involuntary sensations like screaming louder than intended at the time of climax or just feeling more daring in bed.

Oxytocin

The hypothalamus releases oxytocin, a feel-good bonding hormone created in the pituitary gland during sex and then released in the hypothalamus. This causes uterine contractions in females.

This gland plays a role in releasing other hormones as well. It also regulates body temperature (important as things get hot and heavy) and manages sexual behaviors. 

Dopamine

During orgasm, dopamine is released from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the brain, which communicates with other areas to assess how well our human needs are being satisfied. Associated with pleasure and desire, this feel-good hormone acts on the reward system in the nucleus accumbens—the same area associated with drug addiction and Pavlovian responses.

If the VTA has assessed that these needs have been met, it will send dopamine to the nucleus accumbens to reinforce the motivation to keep seeking these feelings of desire. The path between the nucleus accumbens and VTA is known as the “reward circuit.”

Vasopressin

The hormone vasopressin is associated with regulating sexual motivation. While both men and women have it, its levels increase dramatically in erection and male sexual arousal, leading to increased male desire to continue engaging in sexual activity. Following ejaculation, these levels drop back to baseline.

The Brain After Orgasm

Orgasm signals the parasympathetic nervous system to shut down, calming the body. The brain also pumps out serotonin, which is responsible for good mood, relaxation, and post-sex drowsiness which can make us want to nap.

Both men and women may release oxytocin, though women typically release more of the feel-good, connecting hormone. Oxytocin may help relieve pain, potentially helping to reduce headaches after sex or reducing pain from rougher (consensual) sex.

Are you an outdoorsy type, or do you fancy yourself more of an artiste? Maybe you’re a wordsmith, or someone who sees the world in numbers and logic.

According to Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner, there are 8 distinct types of intelligence, a framework that has held sway in the world of developmental psychology for decades.

The Intelligence Type Test

Do you truly know yourself? Our free and fast quiz can help you determine what your intelligence style might be based on how you think, the kind of things you like to do, and areas where you tend to shine brightest.

Who Is This Intelligence Types Test For?

This quiz is not meant to tell you whether or not you are smart by the standards of traditional intelligence testing. Nor is it meant to tell you your learning style. Rather, this quiz is specific to Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, and is more of a reflection of your unique abilities, strengths, and interests.

WIth that in mind, this quiz is for everyone! We all have strengths and weaknesses in different areas. Sometimes, those may conform more closely to traditional ideas of intelligence, but one of the tenets of this framework is that those traditional ideas are too limiting, too reductive, and often biased.

About Multiple Intelligences

The multiple intelligences theory was introduced by Howard Gardner in 1983 in his book Frames of Mind and refined over the years.

His theories initiated a number of attempts to improve schools around the country, and he promoted many efforts to better understand diverse populations in a way that IQ testing could not.

What This Quiz Actually Says About You

Remember, this quiz is for entertainment purposes only. Also, it’s important to note that many of us have strengths across a wide variety of intelligences. While you may lean more toward verbal-linguistic or interpersonal, it’s certainly possible to have an affinity for the outdoors or for music.

So, no, a result of logical-mathematical doesn’t mean you are a math nerd and nothing else! You likely have interests and strengths that point to a variety of intelligences. This quiz merely provides a different way to think about yourself that you may never have before. After all, a little self-reflection never hurts.

How to Act on Your Quiz Results

Let’s face it, you already know your strengths, weaknesses, and areas of greatest interest far better than we can ever know. Our suggestion, then, is to think about your intelligence type as a loose guideline.

If you’re looking to change some habits or learn a new skill, maybe your intelligence type can provide an entry point that will make it easier for you to get started. For example:

• If you have naturalistic intelligence and want to exercise more, think about the different ways that getting outside can help you get in shape.
• If you lean toward interpersonal intelligence and want to learn a new language, it might be best to learn in a group or class setting.
• If you are a logical-mathematical person who wants to get a better hold of your personal finances, put together a neatly organized budgeting chart to get started.

We should always strive to try new things, but it certainly doesn’t hurt to try new things that you are pretty sure you will enjoy based on everything you know about yourself, including your intelligence type. And if you’re looking for an entirely new experience, seek out something fun that touches on one of the types you are typically less drawn to—you might just surprise yourself with what you can do.