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Have you ever wondered why you reach for your phone every time you hear a ding or why you follow the same patterns at work each day? It’s not just habit; it’s the psychology of learning at work. Different types of learning—including association, reinforcement, and observation—all impact the skills we acquire, the habits we pick up, and the behaviors we mimic.

The psychology of learning focuses on a range of topics related to how people learn and interact with their environments. Such principles can be seen in classic psychology experiments (think Pavlov’s dogs drooling every time they heard a bell) and everyday behavior, like when we endlessly scroll through apps designed to keep us hooked.

If you want to know more about how people acquire new knowledge and modify their behaviors, learning more about the psychology of learning can help. Some main types of learning include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and learning through observation. Knowing which one is best suited for a particular situation can help you get the most out of your learning experiences.

Definition of Learning in Psychology

Learning can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists would agree that it is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. During the first half of the 20th century, the school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and sought to explain the learning process. Behaviorism sought to measure only observable behaviors.

3 Types of Learning in Psychology

Behavioral learning falls into three general categories.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally evokes a response.

For example, in Pavlov’s classic experiment, the smell of food was the naturally occurring stimulus that was paired with the previously neutral ringing of the bell. Once an association had been made between the two, the sound of the bell alone could lead to a response.

For example, if you don’t know how to swim and were to fall into a pool, you’d take action to avoid the pool.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the probability of a response occurring is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment. First studied by Edward Thorndike and later by B.F. Skinner, the underlying idea behind operant conditioning is that the consequences of our actions shape voluntary behavior.

He also found that the timing of when reinforcements were delivered influenced how quickly a behavior was learned and how strong the response would be. The timing and rate of reinforcement are known as schedules of reinforcement.

For example, your child might learn to complete their homework because you reward them with treats and/or praise.

Observational Learning

Observational learning is a process in which learning occurs through observing and imitating others. Albert Bandura’s social learning theory suggests that in addition to learning through conditioning, people also learn through observing and imitating the actions of others.

As demonstrated in his classic Bobo Doll experiments, people will imitate the actions of others without direct reinforcement. Four important elements are essential for effective observational learning: attention, motor skills, motivation, and memory.

For example, a teen’s older sibling gets a speeding ticket, with the unpleasant results of fines and restrictions. The teen then learns not to speed when they take up driving.

Stages of Learning

While learning can occur in a variety of ways, it typically involves three important stages:

• Acquisition (encoding): This is the initial period of learning, during which information is obtained and a response is established. It’s when new information is presented, and we start to work on the basic skills we need to perform the task.
• Retention (storage): This stage involves transferring what we have learned into long-term memory. Even if we do not use the knowledge regularly, our understanding of it is retained and not forgotten.
• Recall (retrieval): This stage involves using the knowledge we have obtained when it is needed. For example, recalling facts or performing a skill we have learned are two examples.

History of the Psychology of Learning

One of the first thinkers to study how learning influences behavior was psychologist John B. Watson, who suggested in his seminal 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It that all behaviors are a result of the learning process.

Psychology, the behaviorists believed, should be the scientific study of observable, measurable behavior. Watson’s work included the famous Little Albert experiment in which he conditioned a small child to fear a white rat.

Other important figures in the psychology of learning include:

• Edward Thorndike: Thorndike discovered the law of effect, which stated that behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated.
• Ivan Pavlov: Pavlov’s research on the digestive systems of dogs led to his discovery of classical conditioning.
• B.F. Skinner: Based on Thorndike’s ideas, Skinner focused on how reinforcement and punishment could be used to teach information and modify behavior.
• Albert Bandura: Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiments demonstrated how learning could also occur through observation.

Some people leave a very long mark on the world, and Socrates is definitely one of those people. He was a Greek philosopher from the 5th century BC, but still today, we use some of his teachings.

Socratic questioning is one example of how Socrates lives on. What exactly is it, and why is it still so widely used in our world?

What Is Socratic Questioning?

Clinical and forensic psychologist Dr. Leslie Dobson tells us that Socratic questioning is a communication style that allows a person to stimulate another person’s thinking through open-ended questions.

The questions are meant to push someone “slightly outside of their comfort level, so that they have to think about their thoughts, behaviors and feelings, building their awareness, and in turn allow them to feel more in control.” By asking thought provoking questions, we can have deeper interactions. This is helpful in settings both clinical and casual.

The History and Philosophy Behind Socratic Questioning

Socratic questioning is a part of the Socratic method, the broader style of teaching and communication that Socrates introduced. There is debate over whether we have continued to use the teachings of Socrates nonstop since his time, or if they left and were reintroduced in more recent years. One thing we can be certain of, though, is that Socrates’ work has played a role in modern communication.

The philosophy behind Socratic questioning is both to help us understand others better and to help people understand themselves better. Says Dobson, “Once we are able to name what is going on in us (i.e., emotions, thoughts, behaviors), we have the ability to take the reins and lead our lives.” A deeper style of questioning that opens up our minds more than casual conversation could benefit everyone, including the asker.

What Are the 4 Stages of Socratic Questioning?

The four stages of Socratic questioning are also known as “guided discovery.” As you may expect, this practice has four stages.

1. Asking questions centered around receiving information
2. Attentively listening and reflecting back what you’ve heard
3. Providing a summary of the information you’ve heard
4. Asking more questions, specifically with the intent of applying the answers you heard to the person’s original thoughts

What Are the Six Types of Socratic Questioning?

In order to probe further into a subject, there are different question styles used. These get people thinking in bigger ways than other questions might.

• Clarification: You may ask why a person gave the response they did, or how it relates to the topic at hand.
• Challenge assumptions: Someone may be asked how what they’ve said proves their initial assumptions to be true, or disproves them.
• Look for evidence: You’ll ask questions that help prove a point, such as requesting examples or looking for causes.
• Perspective: These questions make someone step back and see a situation from a differing point of view.
• Discover consequences: Asking how something ties into a different topic, or what the ramifications of what’s been asserted are, help someone think more deeply about an issue.
• Question the question: Further attempting to add depth, you may ask what the other person thinks the point of your questions are, or what the situation at large really means.

Examples of Socratic Questions

It may seem like an abstract concept, but in reality we use Socratic questions in many different areas of day to day life. Here are some examples.

Therapy

Socratic questioning is a valuable psychotherapeutic tool. “Socratic questioning is very helpful when a client is new and closed off, when a client is stuck in their thought process or memory, and also when a client is stuck in an emotion,” explains Dobson. She uses Socratic questioning right at the start of a new client relationship, employing the questions to discern why someone is seeking therapy and what the purpose of it will be for them.

This questioning style can be used throughout therapy, and offers a way to facilitate communication and forward progression. “When a client is stuck in their thought process or memory, Socratic questioning is very helpful to help them think about other aspects of their memory,” says Dobson. “For example, when somebody is having recurring visual flashbacks of a trauma and severe emotional reactions, Socratic questioning is very helpful to start grounding the reality of the memory by exploring our thoughts around it and the emotions that come up.”

News Interviews

We tune into the news to not just hear about what’s going on in the world, but also to gain an understanding of it. Dobson explains, “the reporter will ask an open ended question to an individual, “How did you feel when that happened?” and then follow up with questions that clarify the answer, probe for more details, explore the areas of the person’s reaction, push alternative viewpoints or perspectives (commonly seen in high profile interview guests), and then take a moment to reflect on the conversation and offer closure.” This is the entirety of the Socratic questioning method, step by step.

Court

The legal system is an arena that’s full of Socratic questioning. “A great example is when a lawyer asked me, “So Dr. Dobson, can you explain to the jury how trauma forms? Can you provide an example? How do you know this is true? Do you have data? If this is true, what does it mean for a person who also has anxiety? If it is not trauma, what else could it be? Why does talking about trauma matter in this case?” recalls Dobson.

Benefits of Applying Socratic Questioning

As you can see, Socratic questioning has a variety of uses. It also has numerous benefits in the world. In therapy, it helps people move through challenging issues. In media, it is used to give us deeper understanding of important events and the mindsets of the people involved in them.

Additionally, it allows everyone to better understand their own thoughts and feelings. By asking probing questions that force us to think more thoroughly through why we feel and behave the ways we do, we’re able to gain more understanding of ourselves and others.

Potential Challenges with Socratic Questioning

Socratic questioning isn’t perfect, and it can’t necessarily solve all problems or help everyone through every challenge. The biggest problem with it is that it relies on a person being able to clearly articulate their thoughts and feelings, and some people have a hard time with that.

It could also lead a person to feel attacked, if the questions are too probing. And sometimes, people aren’t ready to think of a situation from someone else’s perspective, or able yet to gain understanding of what the implications or consequences are of an event. Socratic questioning needs to be used at the right time, and in appropriate situations, for it to be useful.

Practical Guidelines for Using Socratic Questioning

If you find yourself interested in this method of communication, you can begin employing it at any time. Here are some guidelines for adding Socratic questioning into your day to day life.

• Listen and reflect: Pay attention to what others tell you, and validate their voice by reflecting their words back to them.
• Ask better questions: Rather than just asking someone what happened in a situation, delve deeper by asking for their feelings about it and motivations.
• Get outside your own mind: Think of situations from others’ perspectives, and encourage those you know to do the same.
• Look for evidence: Challenge your assumptions and those of others by seeking evidence for why someone holds the perspective they do.

We all have fond memories of an old friend—of chatting, laughing, and spending time with them. Life happens and we may have drifted apart over time, but occasionally, something may remind us of them, and we’ll briefly wonder how they are.

If you’ve lost touch with a friend, you’re not alone. According to a 2016 study, people often lose touch with others after age 25. Life can get in the way, with hectic schedules, different paths, life changes, and big moves making it difficult to keep in touch with all the people in your life.

Why We Should Reconnect With Old Friends

These are some of the benefits of reconnecting with an old friend, according to Sabrina Romanoff, PsyD, a clinical psychologist and professor at Yeshiva University:

• Reliving happy memories: Spending time with an old friend can help us remember and relive happy memories, adventures, and the strong bonds we developed through challenging times.
• Getting in touch with your past: Rekindling friendships from different times in our lives can help us reconnect with different parts of ourselves. Old friends can remind us of the person we used to be and help get us in touch with parts of ourselves that might have become suppressed over the years.
• Offering a new perspective: Reconnecting with old friends can give us a new perspective on our lives now relative to the past. We can also get a perspective on the past from someone who has been through it with us. 
• Building your community: Reestablishing a friendship with an old friend can help us strengthen our roots and feel more grounded in our community. A deeper feeling of connectedness contributes to better well-being.

Yes, Things *Might* Get Awkward

As close as we were with our friend, there may be awkwardness in the relationship now. For instance, we might experience the following:

• Hurt feelings: People sometimes take friendships drifting apart personally and negatively interpret the distance in the relationship. For example, they might assume the other person did not like them enough to stay in contact or that they purposely distanced themselves. Their feelings may be hurt, or they may hold a grudge against the other person for not staying in touch.
• Changes over time: Reconnecting can also be awkward because people change significantly over time, and our reference point for our old friend might be very different from the person they are today. We might find that our lives have taken radically different paths since we were younger, and it may be challenging to connect over our shared past when our present lives are so different.
• Comparisons: When reconnecting with an old friend from the past, there may be a tendency to compare present situations. Negative themes of jealousy, envy, or upward social comparison could hinder reconnection.

But We Can Make Things Less Awkward!

Dr. Romanoff suggests some tips that can help us prevent any awkwardness while reconnecting with an old friend:

• Reach out via social media: Connect with them through social media or text message if you’re too nervous to make a phone call or to initiate a meet up. Follow up on one of their most recent posts to spark conversation about what they’re up to. Slowly build up the relationship in a way that feels natural to you.
• Show some love: If you’re genuinely happy to connect with your old friend, make it a point to communicate that to them. Be warm and affectionate with them and let them know how much it means to you. Genuine warmth can help melt away some of the awkwardness that may build up in a relationship.
• Bring back a fond memory: Initiate the conversation by bringing up a cherished memory or a funny time you shared. It will transplant you both back to that moment when you were close and help smooth over the “What are you up to now?” conversations that can sometimes be rigid.
• Display your interest: As you chat with your friend, let them know you’re interested in what they’re sharing with you. Paying attention, asking follow-up questions, and empathizing with them can help you connect with them and get to know who they are today.
• Move past conflicts: Don’t dwell on conflicts or the reasons your friendship drifted apart. If it happens to come up naturally down the line, then feel free to address any possible hurt feelings. But, in the beginning, focus on what you had in common and the good times you shared together.
• Make future plans: As you end your conversation or your meeting with your friend, make future plans with them based on shared interests.

You’ve probably heard of the Oedipus complex but might not be as familiar with its feminine counterpart: the Electra complex. Where the Oedipus complex focuses on boys coveting their mother’s attention, the Electra complex centers on girls. And where people often suggest the Oedipus complex leads to “mommy issues” in men, the Electra complex is popularly implicated in what is dubbed “daddy issues” in women.

According to Freud, during female psychosexual development, a young girl is initially attached to her mother. When she discovers that she does not have a penis, she becomes attached to her father and begins to resent her mother, who she blames for her “castration.”

As a result, Freud believed that the girl then begins to identify with and emulate her mother out of fear of losing her love. Resolving the Electra complex ultimately leads to identification with the same-sex parent.

The Electra Complex at a Glance

Do young girls compete with their moms for their dad’s attention? That’s the basic idea behind what Carl Jung dubbed the Electra complex, an idea that riffed on Freud’s infamous Oedipus complex. Essentially, this concept suggests that girls go through an attachment phase where they engage in a sort of rivalry with their mothers, usually during early childhood.

This convoluted process, Freud suggested, was all about helping girls learn to eventually identify with their mothers and internalize their attitudes into their personalities. Not surprisingly, these ideas are controversial and not widely accepted.

Today, most psychologists take the Electra complex with a grain of salt and view it as more of a historical artifact than a legitimate psychological theory. It certainly offers an interesting look at the development of psychoanalytic thought, but contemporary psychologists focus on other attachment and identity formation theories.

History of the Electra Complex

While the term “Electra complex” is frequently associated with Sigmund Freud, it was actually Carl Jung who coined the term in 1913. The term is derived from the Greek myth of Electra and her brother Orestes, who plotted the death of their mother as revenge for their father’s murder.

Freud developed the underlying ideas of the Electra complex, although he did not term it as such. He rejected the term Electra complex and described it as an attempt “to emphasize the analogy between the attitude of the two sexes.”

Freud and Jung were originally close friends and colleagues, but Jung increasingly grew dissatisfied with certain aspects of Freud’s theories. He felt that Freud emphasized the role sexuality played in motivating human behavior. Eventually, Jung resigned from his psychoanalytic affiliations and acrimony grew between the two men.

How Does the Electra Complex Work?

According to Freudian theory, an important part of the developmental process is learning to identify with the same-sex parent. During the stages of Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, the libidinal energy is focused on different erogenous zones of the child’s body.

If something goes wrong during any of these stages, a fixation at that point in development might occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Such fixations, Freud believed, often led to anxiety and played a role in neurosis and maladaptive behaviors in adulthood.

Freud described the feminine Oedipus attitude complex as a daughter’s longing for her father and competition with her mother. The daughter possesses an unconscious desire to replace her mother as her father’s sexual partner, thus leading to a rivalry between the daughter and mother.

Like many other Freudian ideas, the notion of the Electra complex was controversial, both in his own time and today. Freud did admit that he knew less about the development of girls than boys.

Resolving the Electra Complex

A number of defense mechanisms play a role in resolving the Electra complex. It is the primal id (a component of personality present from birth) that compels the child to possess her father and compete with her mother. To resolve the conflict, these urges and desires must first be repressed from conscious memory.

Freud also suggested that when a young girl discovers she does not have a penis, she develops “penis envy” and begins to resent her mother for “sending her into the world so insufficiently equipped.”

Eventually, this resentment leads the daughter to identify with her mother and incorporate many of the same personality characteristics into her ego. This process also allows the daughter to internalize her mother’s morality into her super-ego, which ultimately directs her to follow the rules of her parents and society.

Modern Views on the Electra Complex

The Electra complex is not widely accepted among mental health professionals today, who often view Freud’s ideas about psychosexual development as outdated and sexist since they rely on century-old gender roles. That said, research does show that children learn about gender roles and sexuality from their parents.

It is also important to note that Freud’s concepts of the Electra complex and Oedipus complex rely on outdated, heteronormative gender roles. It also fails to account for the fact that having two opposite-sex parents does not contribute to better developmental outcomes. Children raised in more diverse family settings, including those from single-parent homes or raised by LGBTQ+ parents have positive experiences and outcomes as well.

If you are trying to give up cigarettes, there are many methods and resources that can help. Nicotine replacement therapy is a popular option that can be effect, but you might also wonder if there are any natural ways to quit smoking.

Smoking cigarettes is one of the most difficult addictions to overcome. It’s only natural that you want to try anything that might help you quit. Many people try natural remedies, but not all are effective or safe. However, some studies do show promising results for some.

Many people who successfully quit use multiple approaches, including counseling or a support system, so you might find that a combination of methods works best for you. Be sure to talk to your doctor to make sure any alternative treatment you try is safe for you.

Acupuncture

Acupuncture may be effective for helping people quit smoking. An acupuncturist will insert thin needles (that are about as thin as a strand of hair) into certain pressure points on the body. People receive acupuncture for various conditions such as chronic pain and migraines.

Can Acupuncture Help You Stop Smoking Naturally?

One study looked at the effect acupuncture had on smoking cessation. Participants received acupuncture needles in various parts of the ear, where they remained for about 20 minutes.

For help resisting smoking in between sessions, acupuncturists provided tiny balls (the size of the tip of a ballpoint pen), that were taped to participants’ ears with invisible tape. When a craving for a cigarette hit, the participant was instructed to press gently on the ball, which stimulated the acupuncture point.

As a result, the number of cigarettes that each person smoked per day decreased—the average time to relapse was 38.71 days, which was longer than 35 days for people who used e-cigarettes and 14 days for people who used nicotine patches as a method of quitting.

Black Pepper

Black pepper essential oil may reduce the severity of cigarette cravings. In one study, participants inhaled one drop of pepper oil on a tissue for two minutes whenever they were struck with a craving.

May Reduce Cravings

The participants reported that both black pepper oil and angelica oil reduced the intensity of their cravings; in addition, the oils made cravings less frequent.

Black pepper oil was more effective at reducing cravings, whereas angelica oil was more effective in extending the time in between cravings.

Hypnotherapy

Hypnotherapy is a type of treatment, usually aided by a therapist, in which a person is brought into a “trance” or a state of consciousness that is deeply connected with their inner thoughts and feelings.

It may help patients cope with emotional distress and trauma. Hypnosis is generally considered a safe treatment when performed by a trained therapist or professional.

Mixed Results for Smoking Cessation

According to one randomized trial, hypnotherapy is only slightly more effective than behavioral counseling in helping people quit smoking.

Participants who underwent hypnotherapy had a 29% success rate of abstaining from cigarettes after one year of quitting. Those who did counseling had a 28% success rate of smoking abstinence, so the results were similar.

In another study, hypnotherapy was compared with nicotine replacement therapies (NRTs). The conclusion was that hypnotherapy was more effective than NRT in long-term abstinence, though there was no improvement in abstinence when the two therapies were combined.

CBT has been shown to help improve self-control when it comes to resisting the urge to smoke cigarettes.

St. John’s Wort

St. John’s is an herb that has been used medicinally for centuries. It is used to treat the symptoms of depression, symptoms of menopause, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), among many other conditions. Whether it is effective for these conditions is up for debate.

According to the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, St. John’s Wort has been shown to be as effective as a standard antidepressant when taken for mild and moderate depression for a short-term period.

It is not proven to be an effective long-term treatment for depression; it is also not proven to be effective in treating more severe types of depression.

More Research Is Needed

Though some people take St. John’s Wort for smoking cessation, it is not proven to be effective for that purpose. More research is needed to know for sure.

Although St. John’s Wort appears to be reasonably safe when taken alone, it can interfere with the effectiveness of prescription and over-the-counter medications, including antidepressants, drugs to treat HIV infections and AIDs, drugs to prevent organ rejection for transplant patients, and oral contraceptives.

Fresh Lime Juice

Limes might be an affordable, accessible alternative to nicotine gum for smoking cessation. Researchers in one study measured smoking abstinence in participants who used lime juice as a cessation method and compared them with those who used nicotine gum.

May Help Smoking Abstinence

After seven days, people who consumed lime juice were found to have higher smoking abstinence rates than those who used the nicotine gum. However, nicotine gum was better at reducing cravings for cigarettes.

It’s not known for sure why lime juice may help with cravings. Researchers have noted that people who smoke commonly have lower levels of vitamin C in their bodies which may increase cravings, and lime juice can replenish vitamin C in the body.

Further studies are needed to fully understand how lime juice can lead to smoking cessation.

Lobelia Is Not Recommended

The herb lobelia (Lobelia inflata) has been promoted to help people fight the effects of nicotine withdrawal and it is found in many anti-smoking products. The active ingredient in lobelia is lobeline, and it is thought to have similar actions on the body as nicotine.

Lobelia is a potentially toxic herb, however, so it is not recommended as a method to quit smoking. It is also in the FDA’s Poisonous Plant Database.

People with heart disease, high blood pressure, heart disease, tobacco sensitivity, paralysis, seizure disorder, shortness of breath, or recovering from shock are at particularly high risk. Children and people who are pregnant or breastfeeding should not take lobelia.

Lifestyle Changes

There are also lifestyle changes—from diet to sleep—that can help you quit smoking.

Make sure you’re drinking enough water. Staying hydrated is a great preventative measure to take to manage cravings. Limit your intake of caffeine and sugar. One study links caffeinated beverages and sugary beverages (like energy drinks) with increased smoking.

Deep breathing and meditation have been linked with smoking cessation. Also, be sure you’re getting enough physical activity and enough sleep. Taking care of your body and fulfilling these basic needs can go a long way in supporting smoking cessation.

Other Methods That Can Help You Stop Smoking

Natural remedies for smoking cessation can be more effective if you combine them with other proven ways to quit smoking. Nicotine replacement therapy can be helpful. NRT products, including nicotine gum, patches, and lozenges, can help you gradually taper your dose to reduce cravings and withdrawal symptoms.

Medications such as Zyban (bupropion) and Chantix (varenicline) can also help you quit successfully. Counseling, support groups, and other resources can support your efforts and make quitting easier. 

While it may take time, effort, and a few attempts, it is possible to quit smoking successfully. The good news is that the health benefits of quitting begin within hours of having your last cigarette. The sooner you are able to quit, the better off your be, so consider employing a range of resources, whether they are medical or natural, to boost your changes of saying goodbye to cigarettes.

Alternative medicines such as herbal remedies have been growing in popularity especially as treatments for anxiety disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). When you examine the science behind each treatment, it’s important to take research quality and the consistency of research results in mind. It’s also smart to consider potential side effects and safety concerns.

Natural Treatments for OCD

Nutritional supplements are available for OCD and anxiety. But you should inform yourself about the evidence-based benefits and potential side effects before you decide to take one.

Most herbal remedies are available at drugstores without a prescription. However, it’s important to talk to your doctor before taking any supplement. In addition to having side effects, many of these nutritional supplements can interfere (enhance or decrease) the actions of prescription medications.

St. John’s Wort

St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) is best know as an herbal anti-depressive, although its effectiveness in treating depression and other forms of mental illness is controversial. St. John’s Wort has been widely used (and in some cases, licensed) in Europe for decades to treat mood and anxiety disorders.

An analysis has found that hypericum—the chemical that’s thought to be the key ingredient in St. John’s Wort—appears to affect the serotonin system. Disruptions in the serotonin system are thought to be important in the development of symptoms of OCD.

A case study (one patient) suggested that St. John’s Wort was effective in reducing symptoms. A second study (12 people with OCD) found that it produced a significant reduction in symptoms that were similar to what would be expected with treatment with a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant medication. Neither study properly accounted for the placebo effect.

In both cases, the people participating in the research studies were told upfront that they were going to be receiving St. John’s Wort in the hopes of reducing their OCD symptoms. Simply knowing that they were receiving a potentially beneficial treatment could have been enough to cause people to feel better.

At least one randomized-controlled trial looked at whether St. John’s Wort was effective in reducing OCD symptoms. In the study, 60 people randomly received either St. John’s Wort or placebo.

Milk Thistle

Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) is an herbal remedy that has long been used in Iran. In 2010, a double-blind, placebo-controlled study compared the effects of milk thistle to the antidepressant Prozac (fluoxetine) in treating OCD (600 milligrams of milk thistle vs 30 milligrams of Prozac daily).

It was found that there was no significant difference between milk thistle and Prozac for OCD symptoms.

N-Acetylcysteine

N-Acetylcysteine is an amino acid that moderates glutamine in the brain. N-acetylcysteine helps produce glutathione, an important antioxidant. A single study of a single person found that N-acetylcysteine improved the actions of the SSRI Luvox (fluvoxamine), resulting in a significant decrease in OCD symptoms.

5-HTP and Inositol

Since the dysregulation of serotonergic and glutamatergic pathways in the brain appears to occur with OCD, other herbs that work in this pathway have also been considered for their possible benefits. Some of these include 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) and ​inositol.

Kava (Piper Methysticum)

Kava is an herbal medication found in clinical trials to reduce anxiety, nervous tension, restlessness, and mild depression. It has been used for hundreds of years in Polynesia, the Micronesia Islands, and Hawaii.

The key constituent in Kava is kavalactone, which stimulates production of both serotonin and gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) in the body which produce a calming effect to the body. It’s best to take Kava from a water-based extract at less than 250 mgs per day. Kava is not recommended during lactation or pregnancy.

Herbal Remedy Research Standards

There are special considerations to take into account when looking at scientific studies that investigate the effectiveness of herbal remedies for OCD, anxiety disorders, or any other mental health condition. Sometimes, study results sound impressive because basic research standards were compromised.

Lack of Standardization

First, studies using herbs that are not in a standardized form may have varying activity levels of chemical components. Studies must consider the plant’s accurate identity and whether the active constituents come from the plant’s leaf, root, seed, or stem.

Lack of Placebo Comparisons

Studies evaluating the effectiveness of medications should also include a placebo treatment group that receives a “sugar pill” that is inactive and could not possibly account for any reduction in symptoms. By using a placebo treatment, it is possible to tell if the actual drug had an effect or not.

Potential for Bias

Lastly, it is important that neither the researchers nor the study participants know who is receiving what treatment until the study is over to avoid bias.

Natural Treatments for OCD Can Have Side Effects

Although many consumers believe that herbals are safer and have fewer adverse effects than prescription medications, treatments like St. John’s Wort are not regulated as closely as conventional medications are and they may cause unpleasant or even dangerous side effects in some people.

For example, if you are currently taking an SSRI to treat OCD, it is essential that you consult your treating physician before taking St. John’s wort, as it could affect your body’s ability to metabolize it. This could lead to a problem known as serotonin syndrome.

Because kava may harm the liver, taking this herbal remedy with alcohol may increase this risk.

Other Complementary Therapies

Don’t forget that there are other alternatives for treating the symtoms of OCD. Beyond supplements, lifestyle interventions such as mindfulness meditation, acupuncture, and yoga may be effective as well.

Unfortunately, there have been few clinical trials looking at these interventions for people with OCD and those that have been done are of fairly poor quality. Yet, unlike prescription drugs and herbal medications, lifestyle interventions rarely have significant side effects and may also help reduce stress.

Keep in Mind

Complementary treatments are often most effective when they are used to augment other evidence-based interventions. Treatments for OCD typically include medication and therapy.

Medicines that may be prescribed include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). Therapies that may be helpful include cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) or acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). 

If you do decide to try a natural treatment for OCD in addition to your regular treatment, always talk to your doctor first. You will need to tell them about any medications, supplements, or substances you are also taking to prevent potential drug interactions.

Propaganda is a type of communication that often involves sharing biased or misleading information to promote a particular agenda or point of view. Propaganda is used to influence people’s opinions or control their behavior through various tactics such as name-calling, bandwagoning, or inciting fear.

Here we explore the goals of a propagandist and in what types of situations it is typically used. We also discuss the potential effects of propaganda, along with some steps we can take to keep from being influenced by skewed or false information.

What Are the Goals of a Propagandist?

People use propaganda to promote a particular agenda or point of view. The goals of propaganda can vary, but commonly include:

• Shaping people’s opinions so they think a particular way
• Convincing people to support a specific cause or political candidate
• Encouraging people to behave in a certain way

How Propaganda Is Used

Propaganda can be used in a variety of ways. Among the settings it is typically seen include the media, advertising, war, and politics.

Propaganda In Media

Mass media is often used by propagandists to sway societies or large groups of people to think a certain way. One example of propaganda in media is the film “Triumph of the Will.”

This 1935 film was made to promote the Nazi regime and to encourage people to support Adolf Hitler using fragments of truth combined with certain images chosen to influence social memory. It is considered to be one of the most effective propaganda films ever made.

Propaganda In Advertising

Advertisers use persuasive techniques to try to convince people to buy their products. One example of propaganda in advertising is the use of fear tactics. Advertisers may try to convince people that they need a certain product to avoid a negative outcome.

Another common technique is the use of bandwagoning. The bandwagon effect involves advertisers trying to convince consumers that everyone is using a certain product and that they should too.

Propaganda In War

Propaganda is often used in war. It can be used to make people support the war effort or to discourage them from supporting the enemy.

War propaganda often relies on misinformation and name-calling or the use of derogatory terms to achieve its goals. For example, in World War II, the Nazis referred to the Jews as “rats” and, during the Islamic Revolution, Ayatolla Hlomeini referred to the United States as the “Great Satan.”

Propaganda In Politics

Propaganda is often used in politics to influence people’s opinions about a particular political candidate or issue. Political propaganda can take many forms, but it often relies on emotional appeals, name-calling, and scare tactics.

One example of political propaganda was the Swift Boat Veterans for Truth ads used to attack John Kerry during the 2004 presidential election. Another occurred in the 2008 presidential campaign when propaganda was used to claim that then-candidate Barack Obama was Muslim.

Effects of Propaganda

Propaganda can be dangerous because it often uses partial truths or biased misinformation to shape people’s opinions and control their behaviors. Presenting only some of the information or skewing it in one direction fails to provide a complete and accurate picture for people to consider when deciding their opinions and behaviors.

Other negative effects of propaganda include:

Propaganda Techniques

People can use a variety of techniques to spread propaganda. Here are some of the most common:

• Name-calling: Name-calling involves using derogatory terms to describe an opponent or enemy.
• Appealing to emotions: Propaganda often relies on emotional appeals to influence people’s opinions. For example, propaganda might incite fear or create anger to get people to support a particular cause.
• Bandwagoning: Bandwagoning is a technique that uses peer pressure to convince people to do something. For example, a political candidate might say, “Everyone is voting for me, so you should too.”
• Scare tactics: Scare tactics are used to frighten people into supporting a particular cause. For example, a campaign might warn people that if they don’t vote, a dangerous criminal will be elected.
• Manipulating Information: Manipulating information involves distorting or misrepresenting the facts to influence people’s opinions. For example, a political campaign might make false claims about an opponent to make them look bad.
• Using false statistics: Using false or misleading statistics is a common propaganda technique. For example, a campaign might claim that most people support their candidate, even if this is not true.
• Making unrealistic promises: Making unrealistic promises is another common technique used in propaganda. For example, a candidate might promise to end poverty, even though this is not possible.
• Using symbols: Symbols are often used in propaganda to represent an idea or concept. For example, in 1920, the Nazi party used the swastika to represent its belief in racial purity.
• Slogans: Slogans are short catchphrases used to summarize an idea or concept. For example, in the 2016 presidential campaign, “Make America Great Again” was one of Donald Trump’s slogans.
• Plain folks: The plain folks’ appeal is a technique that uses average, everyday people to endorse a product or candidate. The idea is that if regular people like something, then it must be good. For example, a political campaign might use ordinary citizens in its commercials to try to appeal to voters.
• Testimonials: Testimonials are endorsements from famous or respected people. For example, a celebrity might endorse a candidate for office, or a doctor might endorse a new medication.
• Transfer: This technique uses positive associations to make an object or person seem more favorable. For example, a political campaign might use the American flag in its ads to make the candidate seem patriotic.
• Card stacking: Card stacking is a technique that only presents information that is favorable to the person or thing being promoted. For example, a company might only show the positive reviews of its product and not the negative ones.
• Glittering generalities: Glittering generalities are words or phrases that have a positive connotation but don’t really mean anything. For example, a candidate might say they are “for change,” even though they don’t specify what kind of change they are for.
• Stereotyping: Stereotyping is a technique that uses oversimplified and often inaccurate ideas or beliefs to describe an opponent or enemy.
• Snob appeal: Snob appeal is a technique that uses the idea of exclusivity to make something seem more desirable. For example, a luxury car company might use the slogan, “Only the best for you.”
• Loaded language: This technique uses language to evoke certain emotions or feelings. For example, the phrase “pro-life” is loaded with emotional and moral weight.
• Weasel words: Weasel words are words designed to mislead or deceive people. For example, the phrase, “I’m not saying that X is a bad person, but…” implies that the person is bad without actually saying it.

Tips to Avoid Being Manipulated by Propaganda

One of the best ways to not fall for propaganda is to educate ourselves about the techniques that are used. By being aware of the ways that information can be distorted, we can more easily see through the manipulation and make our own informed decisions.

It’s also important to critically evaluate the information that we receive. Seek out multiple sources to verify facts before making any decisions, and don’t blindly trust emotional appeals or information presented. Instead, we need to take the initiative to learn if the information provided is accurate before developing our beliefs or changing our behaviors.