Posts in category: Dating Tips, Guide and Advice

Physical attraction refers to the fact that an individual finds another person appealing, says Sabrina Romanoff, PsyD, a clinical psychologist and professor at Yeshiva University. “It is a physical energy that is the result of the chemistry between two people.”

Physical attraction is often instant, and it can contribute to feelings of excitement, increased energy levels, and a craving for physical connection upon seeing someone for the first time. Instant physical attraction and the ensuing emotional response contribute to what people call “love at first sight.”

Why Physical Attraction Is Important

Physical attraction is often the first thing to grab our interest when we are looking for potential partners. For example, when you’re scrolling through profiles on a dating app, the first thing you probably look at is the person’s picture.

If they seem attractive to you at first glance, you may explore their profile further and then decide whether you want to communicate with them; however, if their picture doesn’t pique your interest in that split second, you probably move on to the next one.

Similarly, when you enter a room, such as a restaurant, bar, office, or conference room, you probably do a quick scan of the room. If someone seems physically attractive to you, your eyes may linger on them, or keep going back to them, and you may find yourself interested in what they’re doing or saying.

Factors That Contribute to Physical Attraction

These are some of the factors that play a role in physical attractiveness:

• Facial features: According to a 2015 study, facial features and facial symmetry are the most important determinants of physical attractiveness.
• Physical dimensions: Research studies also show that apart from facial features, other anthropometric factors such as physical dimensions and ratios play a role in physical attractiveness as well.
• Facial expressions: The face typically plays the most important part in social interaction, making facial expressions another important component in physical attractiveness, according to a 2021 study. For instance, the study notes that smiling signals intelligence and trustworthiness and increases physical attractiveness.
• Non-visual cues: A 2015 study shows that other non-visual cues such as voice and scent also contribute to physical attractiveness.

Evolutionary Factors

Evolutionary psychology has a controversial theory about physical attractiveness. It suggests that since physical attractiveness helps people attract mates, evolutionary factors play a role in what people consider attractive.

Evolutionary psychology studies note that certain physical features and dimensions are considered physically attractive since those are desirable qualities in a mate from a biological and reproductive standpoint. Such characteristics include:

• Youthfulness
• Physical health
• Mental and emotional well-being
• Strength
• Fertility

For instance, evolutionary psychology studies conclude that a body mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) within a particular range of those scales may be considered more attractive than a BMI or WHR outside those ranges.

According to evolutionary researchers, this is because having too much body fat is associated with negative health outcomes such as heart disease, diabetes, and restricted movement, whereas not having enough muscle and body fat is linked to a lack of strength and reduced fertility and child-bearing ability.

Sociocultural Factors

Factors such as society, culture, and historical period can also play a role in determining what’s considered attractive and unattractive. In other words, if a culture favors certain body types over others, these preferences can affect individuals.

For instance, they may pursue a BMI that is below what is considered healthy, to meet sociocultural standards of size.

One study found that participants perceived women with low and physiologically unhealthy BMIs as more attractive compared to women with healthy BMIs. Another study found that participants from urban areas thought images of women with lower BMIs were more attractive compared to participants from rural areas who felt women with higher BMIs were more attractive.

Signs of Physical Attraction

Physical attraction is characterized by physiological changes in the body, such as a release of the chemicals dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain, says Romanoff.

“Attraction also activates the orbitofrontal cortex of the brain, which is the part of your brain that processes sensory rewards,” Romanoff explains. These physiological changes can trigger emotional and behavioral changes.

These are some of the signs of physical attraction, according to Romanoff:

• Smiling when around the person
• Maintaining prolonged eye contact with them
• Feeling nervous at the prospect of interacting with them
• Unconsciously mirroring their body movements, expressions, speech, and postures
• Having reduced appetite and difficulty sleeping
• Feeling unsteady, ecstatic, and animated

Physical Attraction and Relationships

Physical attraction is an important component in romantic relationships. It is often the starting point of relationships, helping people connect with each other and build an emotional attachment.

Physical attraction also helps people maintain relationships. According to a 2015 study, being physically attracted to one’s partner is linked to greater marriage satisfaction and longevity.

However, healthy relationships shouldn’t be based on physical attraction alone. Couples should have a strong and widespread foundation for their relationship—this includes an alignment of values, goals, and priorities, says Romanoff.

“If partners are not connected in these other realms, their physical attraction might not be able to sustain a more serious relationship,” she explains.

Group therapy is a form of psychotherapy that involves one or more therapists working with several people at the same time. This type of therapy is widely available at a variety of locations including private therapeutic practices, hospitals, mental health clinics, and community centers.

Group therapy is sometimes used alone, but it is also commonly integrated into a comprehensive treatment plan that also includes individual therapy.

Types of Group Therapy

Group therapy can be categorized into different types depending on the mental health condition it is intended to treat as well as the clinical method used during the therapy. The most common types of group therapy include:

• Cognitive behavioral groups, which center on identifying and changing inaccurate or distorted thinking patterns, emotional responses, and behaviors
• Interpersonal groups, which focus on interpersonal relationships and social interactions, including how much support you have from others and the impact these relationships have on mental health
• Psychoeducational groups, which focus on educating clients about their disorders and ways of coping; often based on the principles of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)
• Skills development groups, which focus on improving social skills in people with mental disorders or developmental disabilities
• Support groups, which provide a wide range of benefits for people with a variety of mental health conditions as well as their loved ones

Groups can be as small as three or four, but group therapy sessions often involve around eight to 12 people (although it is possible to have more participants). The group typically meets once or twice each week, or more, for an hour or two.

Group therapy meetings may either be open or closed. New participants are welcome to join open sessions at any time. Only a core group of members are invited to participate in closed sessions.

Group Therapy Techniques

What does a typical group therapy session look like? In many cases, the group will meet in a room where the chairs are arranged in a large circle so that members can see every other person in the group.

The precise manner in which the session is conducted, and any group therapy activities, depend largely on the goals of the group and the therapist’s style.

Some therapists might encourage a more free-form style of dialogue, where each member participates as they see fit. Other therapists have a specific plan for each session that might include having participants practice new skills with other members of the group.

What Group Therapy Can Help With

Group therapy is used to treat a wide variety of conditions, including:

• Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• Depression
• Eating disorders
• Generalized anxiety disorder
• Panic disorder
• Phobias
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• Substance use disorder

In addition to mental health conditions, CBT-based group therapy has been found to help people cope with:

• Anger management
• Chronic pain
• Chronic illness
• Chronic stress
• Divorce
• Domestic violence
• Grief and loss
• Weight management

After analyzing self-reports from people who have been involved in the process, Irvin D. Yalom outlines the key therapeutic principles of group therapy in “The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy.”

• Altruism: Group members can share their strengths and help others in the group, which can boost self-esteem and confidence.
• Catharsis: Sharing feelings and experiences with a group of people can help relieve pain, guilt, or stress.
• The corrective recapitulation of the primary family group: The therapy group is much like a family in some ways. Within the group, each member can explore how childhood experiences contributed to personality and behaviors. They can also learn to avoid behaviors that are destructive or unhelpful in real life.
• Development of socialization techniques: The group setting is a great place to practice new behaviors. The setting is safe and supportive, allowing group members to experiment without the fear of failure.
• Existential factors: While working within a group offers support and guidance, group therapy helps members realize that they are responsible for their own lives, actions, and choices.
• Group cohesiveness: Because the group is united in a common goal, members gain a sense of belonging and acceptance.
• Imparting information: Group members can help each other by sharing information.
• Imitative behavior: Individuals can model the behavior of other members of the group or observe and imitate the behavior of the therapist.
• Instills hope: The group contains members at different stages of the treatment process. Seeing people who are coping or recovering gives hope to those at the beginning of the process.
• Interpersonal learning: By interacting with other people and receiving feedback from the group and the therapist, members of the group can gain a greater understanding of themselves.
• Universality: Being part of a group of people who have the same experiences helps people see that what they are going through is universal and that they are not alone.

Benefits of Group Therapy

There are several advantages of group therapy.

Support, Safety and Encouragement

Group therapy allows people to receive the support and encouragement of the other members of the group. People participating in the group can see that others are going through the same thing, which can help them feel less alone. The setting allows people to practice behaviors and actions within the safety and security of the group.

Role Modeling

Group members can serve as role models for other members of the group. By observing someone successfully coping with a problem, other members of the group can see that there is hope for recovery. As each person progresses, they can, in turn, serve as a role model and support figure for others. This can help foster feelings of success and accomplishment.

Insight on Social Skills

By working with a group, the therapist can see first-hand how each person responds to other people and behaves in social situations. Using this information, the therapist can provide valuable feedback to each client.

Affordability

Group therapy is often very affordable. Instead of focusing on just one client at a time, the therapist can devote their time to a much larger group of people, which reduces the cost for participants.

Effectiveness of Group Therapy

Group therapy can be effective for depression. In a study published in 2014, researchers analyzed what happened when individuals with depression received group cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). They found that 44% of the patients reported significant improvements. The dropout rate for group treatment was high, however, as almost one in five patients quit treatment.

An article published in the American Psychological Association’s Monitor on Psychology suggests that group therapy also meets efficacy standards established by the Society of Clinical Psychology (Division 12 of the APA) for the following conditions:

Is Group Therapy for You?

If you or someone you love is thinking about group therapy, there are several things you should consider.

You Need to Be Willing to Share

Especially if you struggle with social anxiety or phobias, sharing in a group might not be right for you. In addition, some types of group therapy involve exercises like role-playing and intense personal discussion, which can be overwhelming for people who are extremely private or uncomfortable around strangers.

You May Need to Try a Few Groups

Just like you might need to shop around to find the right therapist, you may also need to try a few groups before you find the one that fits you best. Think a little about what you want and need, and consider what might be most comfortable or the best match for you.

It’s Not Meant for Crisis

There are limitations to group therapy and not all people are good candidates. If you or someone you love is in crisis or having suicidal thoughts, individual therapy is a better choice than group therapy. In general, group settings are best for individuals who are not currently in crisis.

How to Get Started

If you feel that you or someone you love might benefit from group therapy, begin with the following steps:

• Consult with a physician for a recommendation of the best type of group therapy for your condition.
• Consider your personal preferences, including whether an open or closed group therapy session is right for you. You may also choose to explore group therapy online.
• Contact your health insurance to see if they cover group therapy, and if so, how many sessions they cover per year.

Before joining, think about whether you want to participate in an open or closed group. If you would prefer an open group, you can likely join in at any time. For closed groups, you will likely have to wait until a new session begins. 

It is also important to consider whether group therapy will be sufficient on its own or if you need additional assistance in the form of individual and/or medication. Talk to your doctor or therapist to decide what treatment approach is right for your needs. 

Our memory helps make us who we are. It allows us to function in our daily lives, forge relationships that are vital for our well-being, and remember important events from our past. But memory isn’t perfect. Understanding what it is and how it works can offer insights into what you might be able to do to make yours stronger.

Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information. However, this is not a flawless process. Sometimes people forget or misremember things. Other times, information is not properly encoded in memory in the first place.

Memory problems are often relatively minor annoyances, like forgetting birthdays. However, they can also be a sign of serious conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease and other kinds of dementia. These conditions affect quality of life and ability to function.

This article discusses how memories are formed and why they are sometimes forgotten. It also covers the different types of memory and steps you can take to both improve and protect your memory.

How Memories Are Formed

In order to create a new memory, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through a process known as encoding. Once the information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use.

Researchers have long believed that memories form due to changes in brain neurons (nerve cells). Our understanding today is that memories are created through the connections that exist between these neurons—either by strengthening these connections or through the growth of new connections.

This is why reviewing and rehearsing information improves the ability to remember it. Practice strengthens the connections between the synapses that store that memory.

Much of our stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time, except when we actually need to use it. The memory retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.

How Long Do Memories Last?

Unfortunately, memories don’t always last, so we tend to forget a great deal of the things we learn. Some memories are very brief, just seconds long. Such memories allow people to take in sensory information about the world.

Short-term memories are a bit longer and last about 20 to 30 seconds. These memories mostly consist of the information people are currently focusing on and thinking about.

Some memories are capable of enduring much longer—lasting days, weeks, months, or even decades. Most of these long-term memories lie outside of immediate awareness but can be drawn into consciousness when needed.

Using Memory

To use the information that has been encoded into memory, it first has to be retrieved. There are many factors that can influence this process, including the type of information being used and the retrieval cues that are present.

Of course, this process is not always perfect. Have you ever felt like you had the answer to a question just out of your reach, for instance? This is an example of a perplexing memory retrieval issue known as lethologica or the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.

Organizing Memory

The ability to access and retrieve information from long-term memory allows us to actually use these memories to make decisions, interact with others, and solve problems. But in order to be retrievable, memories have to be organized in some way.

One way of thinking about memory organization is the semantic network model. This model suggests that certain triggers activate associated memories. Seeing or remembering a specific place might activate memories that have occurred in that location.

Certain stimuli can also sometimes act as powerful triggers that draw memories into conscious awareness. Scent is one example. Smelling a particular smell, such as a perfume or fresh-baked cookies, can bring forth a rush of vivid memories connected to people and events from a person’s past. 

In order to identify a scent, a person must remember when they have smelled it before, then connect it to visual information that occurred at the same time. So, when areas of the brain connected to memory are damaged, the ability to identify smells is actually impaired.

At the same time, researchers have found that scent can help trigger autobiographical memories in people who have Alzheimer’s disease. This underscores just how powerful memories can be.

3 Main Types of Memory

While several different models of memory have been proposed, the stage model of memory is often used to explain the basic structure and function of memory. Initially proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, this theory outlines three separate stages or types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and three or four seconds for auditory information.

People only pay attention to certain aspects of this sensory memory. Attending to sensory memory allows some of this information to pass into the next stage: short-term memory.

Short-Term Memory

Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories generates information in short-term memory.

While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information allows it to continue to the next stage: long-term memory. Most information stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds.

This capacity can be stretched somewhat by using memory strategies such as chunking, which involves grouping related information into smaller chunks.

In a famous paper published in 1956, psychologist George Miller suggested that the capacity of short-term memory for storing a list of items was somewhere between five and nine. Some memory researchers now believe that the true capacity of short-term memory is probably closer to four.

Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian psychology, long-term memory would be called the preconscious and unconscious.

This information is largely outside our awareness but can be called into working memory for use when needed. Some memories are fairly easy to recall, while others are much more difficult to access.

Why We Forget Some Memories

Forgetting is a surprisingly common event. Just consider how easy it is to forget someone’s name or overlook an important appointment. Why do people so often forget information they have learned in the past?

There are four basic explanations for why forgetting occurs:

• Failure to store a memory
• Interference
• Motivated forgetting
• Retrieval failure

Sometimes information is simply lost from memory and, in other cases, it was never stored correctly in the first place. Some memories compete with one another, making it difficult to remember certain information. In other instances, people actively try to forget things that they simply don’t want to remember.

What You Can Do to Improve Memory

No matter how great your memory is, there are probably a few things you can do to make it even better. Useful strategies to deal with mild memory loss include:

• Write it down: Writing with a pen and paper helps implant the memory into your brain—and can also serve as a reminder or reference later on.
• Attach meaning to it: You can remember something more easily if you attach meaning to it. For instance, if you associate a person you just meet with someone you already know, you may be able to remember their name better.
• Repeat it: Repetition helps the memory become encoded beyond your short-term memory.
• Group it: Information that is categorized becomes easier to remember and recall.
• Test yourself: While it may seem like studying and rehearsing information is the best way to ensure that you will remember it, researchers have found that being tested on information is actually one of the best ways to improve recall.
• Take a mental picture: Systematically trying to make a mental note of things you often forget (such as where you left your car keys) can help you remember things better.
• Get enough rest: Research has also found that sleep plays a critical role in learning and forming new memories.
• Use memorization techniques: Rehearsing information, employing mnemonics, and other memorization strategies can help combat minor memory problems.

How to Protect Your Memory

While Alzheimer’s disease and other age-related memory problems affect many older adults, the loss of memory during later adulthood might not inevitable. Certain abilities do tend to decline with age, but researchers have found that individuals in their 70s often perform just as well on many cognitive tests as those in their 20s.

To help protect your brain as you age, try some of these lifestyle strategies:

• Avoid stress: Research has found that stress can have detrimental effects on areas of the brain associated with memory, including the hippocampus.
• Avoid drugs, alcohol, and other neurotoxins: Drug use and excessive alcohol consumption have been linked to the deterioration of synapses (the connections between neurons). Exposure to dangerous chemicals such as heavy metals and pesticides can also have detrimental effects on the brain.
• Get enough exercise: Regular physical activity helps improve oxygenation of the brain, which is vital for synaptic formation and growth.
• Stimulate your brain: When it comes to memory, there is a lot of truth to the old adage of “use it or lose it.” Researchers have found that people who have more mentally stimulating jobs are less likely to develop dementia.
• Maintain a sense of self-efficacy: Having a strong sense of self-efficacy has been associated with maintaining good memory abilities during old age. Self-efficacy refers to the sense of control that people have over their own lives and destiny. A strong sense of self-efficacy has also been linked to lowered stress levels.

Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations. The American Psychological Association (APA) defines habituation as “growing accustomed to a situation or stimulus,” which diminishes its effectiveness.

For example, a new sound in your environment, such as a new ringtone for your phone, may initially draw your attention or even be distracting. As you become accustomed to this sound, you pay less attention to it, and your response diminishes. This process is an example of habituation.

In this article, we’ll look at some examples of habituation in your life, talk about why habituation happens, and go over some ways you can reduce habituation.

Habituation Examples

To understand how habituation works, let’s look at a few examples. You’ll find that the habituation phenomenon plays a role in many areas of your life, from learning to perception.

Learning

Habituation during learning is something that happens regularly in your everyday life, but you are probably unaware of it. In fact, habituation is a common form of learning. It allows people to tune out non-essential stimuli and focus on the things that really demand attention.

For example, imagine that you are studying with the television playing in the background. The TV might be distracting at first, but habituation allows you to tune out the noise and focus on what you are studying.

Perception

Imagine that you are in your backyard when you hear a loud banging noise from your neighbor’s yard. The unusual sound immediately draws your attention, and you wonder what is going on.

Over the next few days, the banging noise keeps up at a regular pace. Eventually, you just tune out the noise. This is an example of habituation in perception.

It’s not only the sound that prompts habituation—our other senses can also be affected.

Here’s another example: Every morning, you spritz on some perfume when you’re getting ready for work. Since you’re wearing it every day, it doesn’t take long for you to stop noticing the scent of your perfume, but others around you may notice the smell even though you’re no longer aware of it.

You can also easily become habituated to the quirks of your surroundings. Let’s say you move to a new apartment in the city that’s near the subway. At first, you might find the sound of the trains running at all hours of the day and night annoying, or even distressing. But after you’ve settled into your new place, the din of the subway noise just becomes part of your life, and you stop noticing it.

Emotions

Habituation can also happen emotionally, like when we are exposed to a constant barrage of bad news and negative social media posts.

Studies have shown that habituation to the suffering of others can make people less likely to help, particularly if we believe that people have become “used to” experiencing repeated disasters.

Use in Psychotherapy

Some psychotherapy approaches rely on habituation. For example, in the treatment of phobias, habituating people to the source of their fear is one way to help them overcome what they’re afraid of.

Exposure therapy uses progressive exposure to what people are afraid of to help them overcome a phobia. Here’s an example of how habituation in this case could help someone who is afraid of the dark:

• First, the person may simply imagine being in a dark room.
• Once they’ve become habituated to this imagined experience, they will expose themselves to increasingly closer approximations to the real source of their anxiety—such as by standing just inside the door of a dark room—until they finally confront the fear itself by standing fully inside a dark room.
• Eventually, the person becomes habituated to the stimulus (complete darkness) and they no longer experience the fear response to it.

Factors Impacting Habituation

Habituation does not always occur in the same way. Several factors can influence how quickly you become habituated to a stimulus. Some of the factors that affect habituation include:

• Change: Altering the intensity or duration of the stimulation can lead to a recurrence of the original response. So, if that banging noise from your neighbor’s yard grew louder over time or changed in rhythm, you’d be more likely to start to notice it again.
• Duration: If a stimulus is not presented for a long enough time before a sudden reintroduction, the response will again reappear at full strength. If that noisy neighbor’s loud banging were to stop and start, you’d be less likely to become habituated to it. 
• Frequency: The more frequently a stimulus is presented, the faster habituation will occur. If you wear that same perfume every day, you’re more likely to stop noticing it earlier than if you only wore it on special occasions.
• Intensity: Very intense stimuli tend to lead to slower habituation. Sometimes, habituation will never occur. In some cases, such as deafening noises like a car alarm or a siren, that makes sense. A car alarm wouldn’t be very effective as an alert if people stopped noticing it after a few minutes.

Theories of Habituation

Habituation is an example of non-associative learning. In this type, there’s no reward or punishment associated with the stimulus. For example, you’re not experiencing pain or pleasure because of your neighbor’s banging noises.

There are two well-known psychological theories about why we experience habituation:

• Comparator (or neuronal-model) theory: Our brains create models of expected stimuli. When we’re exposed to a stimulus repeatedly, it gets compared to the model made by our brains. Habituation occurs if the stimulus matches the brain’s model.
• Dual-factor o(r dual-process) theory: When repeatedly being exposed to a stimulus causes decreased sensory sensitivity and arousal, habituation will occur.

Habituation in Relationships

Habituation can have real-world consequences, including in our social relationships. For example, “relationship complacency” is a form of habituation. Here are a few reasons why this can happen:

• We get used to the good and the bad: As we grow to know people better, we stop noticing every little thing and become increasingly habituated to both their good and not-so-good qualities.
• We overlook some things and get irritated by others: You might grow accustomed to a partner’s habits that you found irritating at first, or even become increasingly annoyed by things that you overlooked initially.
• Novelty increases attention in the beginning: In the beginning stages of any relationship, people tend to respond more readily to each other. Every sensation is thrilling because it is new.
• Newness eventually wears off: The exciting newness of a relationship does not last forever. Eventually, habituation sets in, and people stop noticing every little thing about their partners.

Habituation in a relationship is not necessarily a bad thing. The passion that marks the start of a relationship often gives way to something deeper and more lasting—a more meaningful love that is marked by friendship, support, and respect, in addition to passion.

Is Habituation Bad for Relationships?

Habituation in relationships can be problematic when it leads to taking the other person for granted—something that can easily happen in a long-term relationship. Over time, you might start to feel like your partner does not appreciate how you contribute to the relationship. Or maybe it is your partner who feels that they are being overlooked by you.

How to Overcome Habituation in Relationships

Here are some things you can do to bring some of the initial sparks back into your relationship and reverse habituation:

• Focus on the positive: Take the time to think about the things you love about your partner. What are the qualities you admire most about this person? What things attracted you the most when you first met?
• Practice gratitude: As you spend more and more time around your partner, it can be all too easy to focus on the things about them that you find irritating. If you focus only on these qualities, it can be extremely difficult to remain satisfied and connected. Instead, practice gratitude for the blessings they bring to your life.
• Recall the feelings from the start of your relationship: Think about the things that you first noticed and loved about your partner. Consider the things you enjoy doing together as a couple. Taking the time to notice those qualities and reintroduce those activities is a good way to reconnect.
• Try something new: Routines and habits can be helpful, but they can also feel stifling. Look for ways to change things up and add a zing of novelty back to your relationship. Try new activities as a couple and explore things together. It can be an interesting way of building a strong connection, as well as a means to see your partner in a new light.

Moral principles are guidelines that people live by to make sure they are doing the right thing. These include things like honesty, fairness, and equality. A person’s morality or moral principles can be different from someone else’s because they depend on how a person was raised and what is important to them in life.

To better understand your moral principles or those of people in your life, it helps to know the different types of principles and examples of each. We also share their impact, how they develop, and their possible pitfalls. But first, let’s look at how moral principles came about.

History of Moral Principles

The history of moral principles dates back to Ancient Greece and Ancient China. Moral principles were important in these societies because they believed that to be successful, people needed a clear sense of right and wrong.

Research on moral principles began with Ancient Greek philosophers like Aristotle, who wanted to figure out the meaning of virtue. Later, moral principles were studied by philosophers like John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Immanuel Kant.

In the field of psychology, moral principles have been studied in the context of moral development. Psychologists seek to understand how children develop a sense of morality and how moral principles are applied in different contexts. For example, psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg studied moral development in boys from different cultures.

Types of Moral Principles

There are two types of moral principles: absolute and relative.

• Absolute principles are unchanging and universal. They are based on universal truths about the nature of human beings. For example, murder is wrong because it goes against the natural order of things. These are also sometimes called normative moral principles or those that are generally accepted by society.
• Relative principles change depending on the situation. They are based on opinions and circumstances that may change over time, from person to person, or for different situations. Relative moral principles depend on a person’s beliefs, relative to what people perceive as good or bad in relation to themselves. In other words, when someone says something is good, in most cases, they are really saying it is good for them or perhaps it contributes to their well-being.

Morals Examples

Some examples of absolute moral principles include:

• Don’t kill.
• Speak the truth.
• Be careful with what you say and do to others.
• Respect the property of others.
• Treat people in need or distress as we would want to be treated if our situation were reversed.

Examples of relative moral principles are:

• It is morally wrong to spend money on a luxury item.
• It is morally right to care for our planet and preserve it for future generations.

How to Adhere to Moral Principles

Many people strive to live by the moral principles they believe in. But, it can be difficult to follow them all of the time, which is what makes following one’s own personal moral values even more valuable.

There are many ways that a person might adhere to their moral principles: through thoughts and feelings, actions, or words. Below are some examples.

• In thoughts and feelings, a person might strive to be honest by being fair and kind.
• With actions, a person might live up to their moral principles by not being violent or aggressive.
• In words, someone might observe their moral principles through politeness.

Impact of Moral Principles

Moral principles are important for society because they help people learn how to get along and live well with each other. They teach us that all human beings deserve the same rights, which is why it’s not okay to discriminate against someone based on their ethnicity or race. People who follow moral principles also tend to have a better quality of life than those who don’t.

Moral principles can also impact an individual’s identity and sense of self-worth. For example, someone who is honest may feel that they are a good person because they follow the moral principle to be truthful at all times. For people with strong values about equality, it might make them feel better about themselves when they don’t discriminate against people who are different from them.

Tips to Develop Good Moral Principles

There are various ways to develop moral principles that transcend culture, religion, and country. If you are just starting on your moral journey, you might consider exploring morals in various philosophical texts.

However, there are also many practical steps a person can take to develop good moral principles:

• Think about what you would do when faced with an ethical dilemma and why you would make those decisions.
• Ask yourself what you think is right or wrong and make sure your actions are in line with those thoughts.
• Watch out for double standards, like being nice to one person while not being so kind to another.
• If it helps, write down a list of the moral principles you want to work on and post them where they’re easy to see, like on a mirror or a sticky note that you hang in your workspace.
• Don’t worry if you’re not perfectly adhering to your moral principles. The important thing is that you are trying your best.

Pitfalls of Moral Principles

There are some things that can go wrong when following moral principles. Below are some examples of how moral principles may not always guide you toward the best course of action.

First, it’s possible to make judgments about others based on your personal values and not theirs. For example, if you think all women should dress conservatively because you believe dressing another way is immoral, you are passing judgment on others based on your own set of standards.

In addition, it can be hard to tell the difference between a moral principle and something that’s cultural or part of your upbringing. For example, you might believe women should defer to their husbands because in your culture everyone has traditionally agreed with this idea for generations; however, if you were born into a different country where people don’t think this way, you might not feel that it’s morally right.

Finally, sometimes people can use moral principles to justify bad behavior like stealing or hurting others in some way. For example, if you steal because you believe it will help the poor, your thoughts could be twisted to say that stealing is okay.

Flashbacks are common among people who use hallucinogenic drugs, and while drug-related flashbacks have a reputation for being disturbing or just the result of a “bad trip,” not everyone who experiences flashbacks finds them troubling.

But sometimes, these flashbacks can be intense, unpleasant, and frequent, even if the person experiencing them is currently abstaining from drug use.

Flashbacks that continue to occur after the original drug effects have worn off are a medically recognized phenomenon, which is documented in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5-TR) as hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD).

Symptoms

A drug-related flashback is the sensation of re-experiencing the effects of a drug after the true effects of the drug have worn off. Most often, this type of flashback is associated with the re-experiencing of the effects of a hallucinogenic drug such as LSD (“acid”) or magic mushrooms.

Flashbacks typically happen in the days or weeks following ingestion of the drug but can happen months or even years after the drug use has been discontinued.

Symptoms of hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) include:

• An image of an object despite it not being there anymore (palinopsia)
• False perceptions of movement out of the corner of the eye (peripheral vision)
• Flashes of color
• Hallucinations (especially of geometric forms)
• Halos or trailing after-effects of images
• Inanimate objects appearing alive (for example, walls that appear to be “breathing” or growing)
• Intensified color
• Objects appearing larger than they are (macropsia)
• Objects appearing smaller than they are (micropsia)
• Trails of images of moving objects
• Visual snow or air that looks sparkly, grainy, or textured

Occasionally, people or situations may seem bizarre or ridiculous, or the person experiencing the flashback may feel dissociated. When this happens in a social situation requiring self-control, it can be embarrassing or scary for the person experiencing it.

Diagnosis

Often diagnosed in people with a history of substance use, HPPD can occur even after the one-time use of triggering drugs, which include LSD, phencyclidine (PCP), methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and cannabis (marijuana).

The following co-occurring mental illnesses are also common in people with HPPD but not required to make a diagnosis:

If you or someone you care about is experiencing intense and frequent flashbacks, you should visit your healthcare provider. It’s important to be honest about your current and past drug use, as well as any history of mental illness.

According to the American Psychiatric Association, to be diagnosed with HPPD a person must:

• Experience the same effects of the hallucinogen after cessation of hallucinogen use
• Experience significant distress or impairment (in social, work-related, or other areas of life) because of the symptoms
• Be generally aware that they are experiencing a drug-induced effect while sober

Causes

Flashbacks can come on unpredictably or in response to a trigger, such as tiredness, anxiety, or stress. Triggered flashbacks can be especially difficult as the person may already be feeling vulnerable due to the trigger, which can make the out-of-control feeling of the flashback all the more confusing and upsetting.

The experience of a flashback can also be self-induced by the person thinking about the experience of tripping on a hallucinogenic drug.

While we don’t know a lot about what causes HPPD, we do know what doesn’t cause them, including the following:

• Another condition such as schizophrenia or brain damage
• Current hallucinogen intoxication
• LSD stored in the body and re-released

The only certain cause of HPPD is previous hallucinogen use, and it is most frequently caused by LSD. You cannot have HPPD if you’ve never used a hallucinogenic drug.

Types

There are two types of HPPD:

• Type 1: People experience random, brief flashbacks
• Type 2: People experience ongoing vision changes that may come and go

Treatment

Flashbacks usually subside on their own after the drug use has been discontinued, over the course of a few months, and most experts agree about the importance of abstaining from drug use for recovery.

Therapy

A mental health professional can help to treat the anxiety that can accompany flashbacks, giving the person more of a sense of self-control.

If the person has no insight into the drug-induced nature of their symptoms or if these experiences persist or cause significant distress, however, they should seek a psychiatric assessment to determine if there is another mental health issue involved, such as psychosis.

Medication

Anti-seizure and epilepsy medicines like Klonopin (clonazepam) and Lamictal (lamotrigine) have been used in the treatment of HPPD, however, there is no recognized medical treatment for flashbacks.

Other drugs that have been studied in the treatment of HPPD include:

• Benzodiazepines to minimize feelings of anxiety.
• Antidepressant medications (to manage co-occurring HPPD with anxiety and depressive disorders)
• Low doses of atypical antipsychotics such as Abilify (aripiprazole)

Coping

Having a flashback can be distressing, but calming or self-soothing activities like deep breathing, grounding techniques, and mindfulness can ease the psychological discomfort and help you to stay in the moment. It’s also important to learn your triggers so you can do your best to avoid them and better manage them when they do occur.

For example, if stress is a trigger for you, work on practicing stress management. If fatigue is a trigger, take steps to get adequate sleep and rest when you need to.

Whether you turn to a loved one or a mental health professional, know that you don’t have to deal with HPPD and drug-related flashbacks alone. Getting help and seeking support is a great first step toward overcoming the disturbing and frequent visual disturbances of HPPD.