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The long-term side effects of antidepressants such as Zoloft can include emotional numbness, sexual problems, weight gain, reduced positive feelings, and/or suicidal thoughts. Nevertheless, antidepressants such as Zoloft are often prescribed for long-term use when healthcare providers believe their benefits outweigh their risks.

Although this class of medications is named after a single condition, antidepressants are also used to treat many other illnesses including:

• Binge eating disorder
• Bipolar disorders
• Bulimia
• Childhood bedwetting
• Fibromyalgia
• Generalized anxiety disorder and social anxiety disorder
• Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS)
• Neuropathy (pain from damaged nerves, including diabetic neuropathy)
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

Researchers are just learning about the long-term side effects of antidepressants. Extended studies are rarely done before a drug gains approval, so medications can be around for a long time before a consistent side effect profile emerges.

Antidepressants and Your Brain

Before delving into the research, let’s look at how antidepressants work. Antidepressants come in several forms, such as:

• Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
• Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
• Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)
• Tricyclics (TCAs)

In the brain, information—including emotion—moves from one neuron (brain cell) to another via chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. Think of neurotransmitters as mailbox keys. Each one unlocks certain receptors (chemical “locks”) that keep the message traveling.

With many of these conditions or diseases, something is wrong with the brain’s neurotransmitters (usually serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, or others). Sometimes, there’s just not enough of one or more of the neurotransmitters. In other cases, the brain doesn’t use neurotransmitters efficiently, or the problem could lie with the receptors. There’s either no key for the lock, the key isn’t used properly, or the lock is broken.

Regardless of the cause of the problem, the result is the same: neurotransmitter dysregulation. The mail isn’t getting to the right mailbox, so messages aren’t being delivered.

Zoloft and other antidepressants change how neurotransmitters function, making more available so that when a message comes along, it can be properly delivered. This is achieved by slowing down a process called reuptake, which is essentially a clean-up or recycling process.

Once the messages are flowing more as they should, your brain works better and the symptoms related to the slow-down diminish or go away.

Long-Term Side Effects

Every neurotransmitter has many different jobs. Increasing the available neurotransmitters might have the desired effect of alleviating depression, lowering neuropathic pain, or improving one’s thought process, but it can also have unwanted effects.

The potential side effects of Zoloft and other antidepressants are many, and they can range from mildly annoying to debilitating and even life-threatening. Beyond that, there’s the issue of antidepressants becoming less effective over time.

As we’ve learned more about the long-term effects of antidepressants such as Zoloft, some of the top concerns that have emerged have to do with weight gain and diabetes. However, many other side effects can persist and have a negative impact on your quality of life.

Patient Preference and Adherence published a paper looking at what people taking antidepressants long-term had to say about the side effects that they’ve seen. Overall, they were less depressed and had a better quality of life because of the drugs, but about 30% still said they had moderate or severe depression.

The main side effects included:

• Sexual problems (72%), including the inability to reach orgasm (65%)
• Weight gain (65%)
• Feeling emotionally numb (65%)
• Not feeling like themselves (54%)
• Reduced positive feelings (46%)
• Feeling as if they’re addicted (43%)
• Caring less about other people (36%)
• Feeling suicidal (36%)

Many of the participants wanted more information about the long-term risks of their medication. About 74% of people also mentioned withdrawal symptoms and said they needed more information and support about going off of antidepressants.

Some people noted that they’d had to try multiple antidepressants before finding one that worked well for them and was tolerable. However, more than two-thirds of the people questioned said the medication helped them cope with life.

About one-fifth of the participants said antidepressants helped them to function well. However, some said that if they’d known about the side effects and possibility of withdrawal, they would never have started taking the medication at all.

What It Means for You

Before taking Zoloft or another antidepressant, get familiar with the possible long-term side effects. Know that you may need to try several drugs before finding the best one for you.

While you’re on the medication, stay vigilant for side effects, and weigh how significant they are versus how much the drug helps you.

You should involve your doctor in any decisions you make regarding antidepressant use. That said, you’re the only one who can decide whether the benefits of taking a medication outweigh the drawbacks.

Weight Gain

Weight gain is one of the potential long-term side effects of Zoloft and some other antidepressants on the body.

A 2015 study published in The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry suggests the long-term risk of weight gain from antidepressants that alter serotonin receptors could be significantly higher in women than in men, possibly due to differences in how serotonin is used.

What It Means for You

Weight gain can have negative effects on your self-esteem as well as your health. Talk to your doctor about how you may be able to improve your diet and/or increase exercise to help keep those extra pounds from piling up.

Blood Sugar & Diabetes

Several studies have noted what appears to be a link between antidepressant use and problems with blood sugar regulation, including type 2 diabetes.

A systematic review published in a 2013 edition of the journal Diabetes Care examined this relationship to get a better feel for what’s going on. They looked at 22 studies, including a couple with more than 4,000 participants. Here’s a look at some of the findings that prompted the review:

• Antidepressants may worsen blood sugar control because they can cause significant weight gain.
• SSRIs and Pamelor (nortriptyline) reportedly worsen blood sugar control in people with diabetes.
• Tricyclic antidepressants cause hyperglycemia (high blood sugar levels) in humans.
• In mice, tricyclic antidepressants cause a condition called hyperinsulinemia, in which the blood contains too much insulin relative to the amount of sugar.

The aim of the review was to determine whether antidepressants raise the risk of diabetes in people who didn’t have it when they started on the medications. They concluded that some antidepressants affect blood sugar regulation and that the drugs could be a risk factor for diabetes. However, the larger and more recent studies they looked at suggested that the risk was small.

They do say, though, that higher doses appear to be linked to greater risk. Also, in some cases, people who have developed type 2 diabetes while on antidepressants have seen the disease disappear when they went off of the medication. Researchers also note that people who were diagnosed with diabetes were more likely to be prescribed antidepressants, but the relationship there isn’t clear.

What It Means for You

If you have diabetes, your doctor may want to adjust your diabetes medications while you’re on antidepressants to make sure your blood sugar levels are staying in a healthy range.

You might also want to focus more on weight loss and exercise since both of those things play a role in diabetes, and your antidepressant may be causing some weight gain.

Can Antidepressants Stop Working?

If your antidepressant is no longer working as well as it did when you first started taking it, you could have developed a tolerance for the drug. Some people refer to this as antidepressant “poop-out,” although the medical term is tachyphylaxis. It has not been determined how many people taking antidepressants experience this phenomenon, but studies show rates ranging from 9% to 57%.

While no one knows for sure why this decrease in effectiveness occurs, one theory suggests that receptors in the brain become less sensitive to the medication. Other culprits include:

• Age
• Alcohol or drug misuse
• Alternative or cooccurring mental health diagnosis
• Drug interactions
• Stress

What It Means for You

If you think you’ve built a tolerance to your antidepressant, talk to your doctor who may suggest the following:

• Increasing your dose
• Adding another medication
• Switching to a different class of antidepressant
• Adding psychotherapy or counseling to your treatment plan
• Making lifestyle changes to help ease depression symptoms

Treatment-Resistant Depression

Roughly 10% to 30% of people don’t respond to antidepressant treatments at all, which may be caused by treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Although there is not a standard definition, TRD is often defined as failing to respond to two or more treatment attempts despite adequate dose, duration, and adherence. TRD can lead to poor social functioning, medical comorbidity, and increased mortality.

While the cause of TRD is still unknown, genetics, metabolic disorders, and misdiagnosis often play a role.

What It Means for You

If your doctor has determined that you have TRD, they may try one or more of the following treatment approaches:

How to Manage Long-Term Antidepressant Use

If you notice any of the side effects mentioned (or any additional effects) of long-term antidepressant use, be sure to consult with a doctor immediately. In some cases, a doctor may alter your dosage or switch you to another antidepressant entirely.

Many people attend therapy while they’re taking antidepressants. Treatment such as cognitive behavioral therapy may help you closely monitor any changes in behavior or other side effects that occur as a result of an antidepressant.

A therapist may even consult with your prescribing doctor or general practitioner in order to monitor your health while you take an antidepressant.

In some cases, a depression relapse may occur, even while you’re taking an antidepressant. A depression relapse is when your symptoms occur after a period of recovery. Talk to a doctor if you experience new or worsened symptoms of depression such as:

• Experiencing a loss of interest in activities
• Feeling sad or anxious
• Having suicidal thoughts
• Sleeping too much or too little
• Withdrawing from family or friends

Seroquel (quetiapine) is an atypical antipsychotic medication used to treat mental disorders such as depression and schizophrenia. Healthcare providers also prescribe it off-label (i.e., not approved by the FDA for the treatment of a particular condition) to treat anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Quetiapine is available in both immediate-release and extended-release variations, Seroquel helps reduce anxiety by balancing the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain.

Keep reading to learn more about how quetiapine is used as an off-label anxiety treatment, how it works, and what you should know before taking this medication.

Seroquel (Quetiapine) as an Anxiety Treatment

Neither the immediate release nor extended-release versions of Seroquel are approved by the FDA for treating anxiety disorders. However, the drug is often used off-label for the treatment of this condition. In fact, the most common off-label use of Seroquel is for the treatment of anxiety disorders.

Research Studies

Seroquel has been studied and is still being researched as a treatment option for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

Research shows that Seroquel can be particularly effective in treating generalized anxiety disorder. For example, in a large 2016 study, researchers studied the effectiveness of quetiapine as a treatment for generalized anxiety disorder.

The study involved a total of 2,248 participants who either had generalized anxiety disorder or belonged to a control group. At the end of the study, researchers found that quetiapine is an effective treatment for generalized anxiety disorder in adults.

When to Use Seroquel

Seroquel should be considered as an anxiety treatment only when other anxiety medications like Prozac (fluoxetine), Zoloft (sertraline), and Celexa (citalopram) have proven to be ineffective.

Using Seroquel or any other anxiety medication regularly and properly is important to ensure the proper treatment of your symptoms. If your doctor prescribes Seroquel for your anxiety, it is essential to continue using it for as long as your doctor states.

It’s essential to know that using Seroquel alongside anticonvulsant medication could potentially make them less effective in treating your symptoms. 

Seroquel Uses

Seroquel is currently approved by the FDA to treat the following conditions:

• Schizophrenia: Seroquel has proven to be a very effective treatment of schizophrenia in adults. 
• Bipolar disorder: Seroquel can be used to treat bipolar disorder in adults and children who are at least ten years old.
• Major depressive disorder: Seroquel is typically used alongside other antidepressant medication to treat major depressive disorder in adults. 

Seroquel is also being studied and used off-label to treat conditions such as anxiety. While it is not yet FDA-approved for this use, your doctor may prescribe it to treat anxiety if you have not had an adequate response from other first-line anxiety treatments.

What Does Quetiapine Do?

Seroquel works by helping to restore balance to the chemical messengers in your brain. It can help to improve concentration, decrease anxiety, and improve your moods and energy levels. 

Scientists believe that quetiapine blocks dopamine receptors in your brain, preventing the increased activity of dopamine in your brain. Increased dopamine activity in the brain has been linked to the development of conditions that are characterized by psychosis.

Seroquel Dosage for Anxiety

Seroquel is used off-label for the treatment of anxiety disorders. Since its use for this indication is off-label, it means that there are no standard doses provided by the manufacturer for using this medication.

Your doctor is most likely to examine your medical history, the severity of your condition and symptoms, and your tolerance for Seroquel before recommending a dosage. 

The extended-release version of the medication is more commonly used for treating anxiety disorders. The extended-release formulation steadily releases the medication into your body throughout the day. It is typically prescribed to be taken once a day, preferably at bedtime, and comes in 50mg, 150mg, 200mg, 300mg, and 400mg doses.

Before Taking Quetiapine

People who have allergic reactions to quetiapine should not take Seroquel. If you notice any symptoms of itching, swelling, hives, or difficulty breathing when using Seroquel, you might be allergic to quetiapine and you should inform your doctor of your symptoms as soon as you can. 

Pregnancy

People who are pregnant are often discouraged from taking Seroquel. Taking this medication in the third trimester of your pregnancy could cause complications for your baby when they are born. 

Seroquel Side Effects

While quetiapine might be an effective treatment for anxiety, there are some common side effects that you might experience while using it:

• Constipation 
• Tiredness
• Dry mouth 
• Dizziness
• Drowsiness 
• Mood change 
• Sore throat 
• Nausea 
• Vomiting 

Some people might experience more severe symptoms such as: 

• Lightheadedness 
• Uncontrolled muscle movements 
• Blurred visions 
• High blood sugar 
• Trouble swallowing or speaking 

Seroquel Warnings and Interactions

If you notice any symptoms of tremors, confusion, uncontrolled muscle movements, weakness, and high fevers while taking quetiapine, you should consult with your doctor immediately. 

It’s essential to strictly follow your doctor’s prescription or the manufacturer’s recommendation when using Seroquel to treat any condition, not just anxiety.

The FDA also warns that using antipsychotic drugs like Seroquel increase the risk of death in older people who have dementia-related psychosis.

Antipsychotic medication like Seroquel can also increase the risk of suicide and suicidal thoughts. If you notice any changes in your mood or behavior, or in the mood and behavior of a loved one who’s on the medication speak to your doctor or call a suicide helpline.

Many people have thought or said “I hate my mom,” often when they’re adolescents and are mad about not getting their way. They probably didn’t mean it at the time and looking back they may even regret their rebellious behavior. 

However, in some cases, people actually do hate their mothers, sometimes for good reason. This can be a difficult situation to be in, because mothers are typically characterized as warm, caring, and nurturing.

People sometimes feel hatred for their mothers if they fail to meet their expectations of what a mother should be, says Sabrina Romanoff, PsyD, a clinical psychologist and professor at Yeshiva University, New York City. Below, Romanoff unpacks the complex reasons why you might hate your mom.

Why Do I Hate My Mom?

Your mother was once solely responsible for your vitality and responded to your every need. Therefore, we hold intense bonds with our mothers. That intensity often impedes our ability to view our mothers as humans, along with the flaws and damage that correspond with that.

Relationships with mothers are often complicated. Rarely are mothers ‘all-bad’ figures, and therein lies the problem.

Moreover, hate is complicated and is usually reserved for people who we have diversified feelings towards. In other words, it is much easier to accept a flawed person when we have a minimal history with them or don’t have to rely on them.

So, if your mother always behaved abusively and treated you horribly, you likely would not hold discord in your view of her. As a result, it might be easier to accept her as she is and sever all contact. 

If your mother was abusive, if you struggle to accept her shortcomings, or more commonly, if she was inconsistent in her treatment of you or to others, you likely will have an adverse reaction each time she violates your expectations of her.

Inconsistent parents change their minds often, don’t make strong decisions, lack structure, and don’t engage with their kids in a predictable way. If your mother was inconsistent in her parenting, you may have trouble believing that she is reliable or predictable. Research also suggests that this style of parenting can contribute to feelings of anxiety.

However, underneath your feelings of hate, lies the love the child version of you still has for your mother. Despite mistreatment, children still hold out hope for their caretakers to treat them in the way they believe loving mothers should. And, ultimately, perpetual disappointment usually creates an intense, negative reaction, like hate.

How Do I Cope When I Hate My Mother

Hating your mother can be confusing and emotionally draining since hatred is a more severe form of anger. It’s important to prioritize self-care and make any changes to your lifestyle that are necessary for you to cope.

It’s also natural for you to feel angry. Romanoff explains how you can use your anger productively to set boundaries.

Setting Boundaries

Anger is usually a healthy reaction to indicate a boundary has been violated. The key to anger is recognizing it and learning how to use it productively. A productive reaction to anger is to first identify when it is occurring, and then pause to reflect on the source and cause. 

This process is not as easy as it sounds, as anger often makes for impulsive action. Although it might feel rewarding to satisfy this urge in the moment, it almost always leads to regrettable consequences, such as name-calling, hurtful comments, threats, or physical aggression. This is because anger seeks retaliation—to hurt the other as you have been hurt yourself. 

If you don’t take the time to pause and understand what your anger is in response to, you will be unable to re-create the violated boundary.

Instead, you will be left with the carnage of your impulsive anger-driven response, which usually corresponds with feelings of guilt as you may then feel obligated to apologize to the aggressor. 

This creates a vicious cycle of reciprocal jabs between each of you without getting either of your needs met in a productive way.

Therapy can be a helpful tool to teach you how to use your anger productively and set boundaries that protect your mental health.

Self-Care

Going through a rough patch with your mother can be emotionally challenging. However, practicing self-care by prioritizing your needs and putting them above the needs of others can help you cope. 

This can take different forms depending on the dynamics of your relationship with your mother. For instance, it could mean asking your mother for some space or telling her you don’t want to spend the holidays together anymore.

If you live with your mother, it could involve lifestyle changes, where you move out if you’re old enough to, or seek help if you’re a victim of abuse.

How do you determine whether a psychology study is trustworthy and meaningful? Two characteristics that can help you assess research findings are internal and external validity.

• Internal validity measures how well a study is conducted (its structure) and how accurately its results reflect the studied group.
• External validity relates to how applicable the findings are in the real world.

These two concepts help researchers gauge if the results of a research study are trustworthy and meaningful.

What Is Internal Validity in Research?

Internal validity is the extent to which a research study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship. This type of validity depends largely on the study’s procedures and how rigorously it is performed.

Internal validity is important because once established, it makes it possible to eliminate alternative explanations for a finding. If you implement a smoking cessation program, for instance, internal validity ensures that any improvement in the subjects is due to the treatment administered and not something else.

Internal validity is not a “yes or no” concept. Instead, we consider how confident we can be with study findings based on whether the research avoids traps that may make those findings questionable. The less chance there is for “confounding,” the higher the internal validity and the more confident we can be.

In short, you can only be confident that a study is internally valid if you can rule out alternative explanations for the findings. Three criteria are required to assume cause and effect in a research study:

• The cause preceded the effect in terms of time.
• The cause and effect vary together.
• There are no other likely explanations for the relationship observed.

Factors That Improve Internal Validity

To ensure the internal validity of a study, you want to consider aspects of the research design that will increase the likelihood that you can reject alternative hypotheses. Many factors can improve internal validity in research, including:

• Blinding: Participants—and sometimes researchers—are unaware of what intervention they are receiving (such as using a placebo on some subjects in a medication study) to avoid having this knowledge bias their perceptions and behaviors, thus impacting the study’s outcome
• Experimental manipulation: Manipulating an independent variable in a study (for instance, giving smokers a cessation program) instead of just observing an association without conducting any intervention (examining the relationship between exercise and smoking behavior)
• Random selection: Choosing participants at random or in a manner in which they are representative of the population that you wish to study
• Randomization or random assignment: Randomly assigning participants to treatment and control groups, ensuring that there is no systematic bias between the research groups
• Strict study protocol: Following specific procedures during the study so as not to introduce any unintended effects; for example, doing things differently with one group of study participants than you do with another group

Internal Validity Threats

Just as there are many ways to ensure internal validity, a list of potential threats should be considered when planning a study.

• Attrition: Participants dropping out or leaving a study, which means that the results are based on a biased sample of only the people who did not choose to leave (and possibly who all have something in common, such as higher motivation)
• Confounding: A situation in which changes in an outcome variable can be thought to have resulted from some type of outside variable not measured or manipulated in the study
• Diffusion: This refers to the results of one group transferring to another through the groups interacting and talking with or observing one another; this can also lead to another issue called resentful demoralization, in which a control group tries less hard because they feel resentful over the group that they are in
• Experimenter bias: An experimenter behaving in a different way with different groups in a study, which can impact the results (and is eliminated through blinding)
• Historical events: May influence the outcome of studies that occur over a period of time, such as a change in the political leader or a natural disaster that occurs, influencing how study participants feel and act
• Instrumentation: This involves “priming” participants in a study in certain ways with the measures used, causing them to react in a way that is different than they would have otherwise reacted
• Maturation: The impact of time as a variable in a study; for example, if a study takes place over a period of time in which it is possible that participants naturally change in some way (i.e., they grew older or became tired), it may be impossible to rule out whether effects seen in the study were simply due to the impact of time
• Statistical regression: The natural effect of participants at extreme ends of a measure falling in a certain direction due to the passage of time rather than being a direct effect of an intervention
• Testing: Repeatedly testing participants using the same measures influences outcomes; for example, if you give someone the same test three times, it is likely that they will do better as they learn the test or become used to the testing process, causing them to answer differently

What Is External Validity in Research?

External validity refers to how well the outcome of a research study can be expected to apply to other settings. This is important because, if external validity is established, it means that the findings can be generalizable to similar individuals or populations.

Population validity and ecological validity are two types of external validity. Population validity refers to whether you can generalize the research outcomes to other populations or groups. Ecological validity refers to whether a study’s findings can be generalized to additional situations or settings.

Another term called transferability refers to whether results transfer to situations with similar characteristics. Transferability relates to external validity and refers to a qualitative research design.

Factors That Improve External Validity

If you want to improve the external validity of your study, there are many ways to achieve this goal. Factors that can enhance external validity include:

• Field experiments: Conducting a study outside the laboratory, in a natural setting
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria: Setting criteria as to who can be involved in the research, ensuring that the population being studied is clearly defined
• Psychological realism: Making sure participants experience the events of the study as being real by telling them a “cover story,” or a different story about the aim of the study so they don’t behave differently than they would in real life based on knowing what to expect or knowing the study’s goal
• Replication: Conducting the study again with different samples or in different settings to see if you get the same results; when many studies have been conducted on the same topic, a meta-analysis can also be used to determine if the effect of an independent variable can be replicated, therefore making it more reliable
• Reprocessing or calibration: Using statistical methods to adjust for external validity issues, such as reweighting groups if a study had uneven groups for a particular characteristic (such as age)

External Validity Threats

External validity is threatened when a study does not take into account the interaction of variables in the real world. Threats to external validity include:

• Pre- and post-test effects: When the pre- or post-test is in some way related to the effect seen in the study, such that the cause-and-effect relationship disappears without these added tests
• Sample features: When some feature of the sample used was responsible for the effect (or partially responsible), leading to limited generalizability of the findings
• Selection bias: Also considered a threat to internal validity, selection bias describes differences between groups in a study that may relate to the independent variable—like motivation or willingness to take part in the study, or specific demographics of individuals being more likely to take part in an online survey
• Situational factors: Factors such as the time of day of the study, its location, noise, researcher characteristics, and the number of measures used may affect the generalizability of findings

Internal Validity vs. External Validity

Internal validity and external validity are two research concepts that share a few similarities while also having several differences.

Similarities

One of the similarities between internal validity and external validity is that both factors should be considered when designing a study. This is because both have implications in terms of whether the results of a study have meaning.

Both internal validity and external validity are not “either/or” concepts. Therefore, you always need to decide to what degree a study performs in terms of each type of validity.

Each of these concepts is also typically reported in research articles published in scholarly journals. This is so that other researchers can evaluate the study and make decisions about whether the results are useful and valid.

Differences

The essential difference between internal validity and external validity is that internal validity refers to the structure of a study (and its variables) while external validity refers to the universality of the results. But there are further differences between the two as well.

For instance, internal validity focuses on showing a difference that is due to the independent variable alone. Conversely, external validity results can be translated to the world at large.

Examples of Validity

Perhaps the best way to understand internal validity and external validity is with examples.

Internal Validity Example

An example of a study with good internal validity would be if a researcher hypothesizes that using a particular mindfulness app will reduce negative mood. To test this hypothesis, the researcher randomly assigns a sample of participants to one of two groups: those who will use the app over a defined period and those who engage in a control task.

The researcher ensures that there is no systematic bias in how participants are assigned to the groups. They do this by blinding the research assistants so they don’t know which groups the subjects are in during the experiment.

A strict study protocol is also used to outline the procedures of the study. Potential confounding variables are measured along with mood, such as the participants’ socioeconomic status, gender, age, and other factors. If participants drop out of the study, their characteristics are examined to make sure there is no systematic bias in terms of who stays in.

External Validity Example

An example of a study with good external validity would be if, in the above example, the participants used the mindfulness app at home rather than in the laboratory. This shows that results appear in a real-world setting.

To further ensure external validity, the researcher clearly defines the population of interest and chooses a representative sample. They might also replicate the study’s results using different technological devices.

Impulsivity, or impulsive behavior, is broadly defined as actions without foresight that are poorly conceived, prematurely expressed, unnecessarily risky, and inappropriate to the situation. Impulsivity is associated with undesirable, rather than desirable, outcomes.

Impulsivity is a characteristic of a number of mental health conditions, including borderline personality disorder (BPD), bipolar disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

People who experience impulsivity may make hasty decisions, get into arguments, and engage in risky behaviors. In addition to undermining relationships and a person’s overall sense of well-being, impulsive behaviors can also lead to financial and legal harm if left unchecked.

Fortunately, there are treatments that can help bring impulsivity under control, including psychotherapy, mindfulness training, and pharmaceutical drugs.

Characteristics of Impulsivity

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), impulsive behaviors are a hallmark of BPD and other conditions. How it presents may vary depending on a person’s specific diagnosis and the severity of their condition.

People who are impulsive are commonly described as:

• Hot-headed
• Rash
• Unpredictable
• Unstable

This instability often causes people to struggle with feelings of inadequacy that manifest with unstable emotions, unstable behaviors, and unstable relationships. In BPD, for example, people may be quick to lash out at anything considered a slight and will often fail to recognize how those emotions are unreasonable or excessive.

In psychological terms, impulsive behaviors are inherently inappropriate either in terms of scale or potential risk. In some cases, people are less likely to take into account potential consequences and will often turn to self-harm behaviors (like binge eating or excessive drinking) as a means to cope.

However, impulsive behaviors are not, in and of themselves, a diagnosis. It is only when the behavior is pervasive, detrimental, and interferes with a person’s ability to function normally that mental health diagnoses such as BPD or bipolar disorder may be considered.

Identifying Impulsivity

Impulsivity is not a separate condition, but it is often a symptom of a mental health condition. No single test can confirm whether impulsive behavior is the result of BPD, bipolar disorder, or some other condition. A doctor will perform a psychological exam to determine whether the symptoms are consistent with the criteria outlined in the DSM-5.

During a psychological evaluation, a doctor will ask questions about the symptoms a person is experiencing, including questions about the severity, nature, and duration of the symptoms. In some cases, they may ask other people who have contact with the individual, such as family members, for information about symptoms and behavior.

Risk Factors for Impulsivity

There are a number of different factors that are associated with an increased risk for impulsive behavior. Some of these include:

• Age: Younger people are more prone to engaging in impulsive behaviors than older people.
• Sex: Boys and men tend to be affected by impulsivity more frequently.
• Family history: A family history of mental illness or impulsive behavior can lead to an increased risk.
• Trauma: Exposure to trauma, violence, abuse, and neglect may increase a person’s risk for impulsivity.
• Substance use: Using drugs and alcohol can contribute to impulsive behavior.

Causes of Impulsivity

The exact causes of impulsivity are not fully understood, but it is believed that both environmental factors and genetic factors may play a role.

Psychological Factors

Impulsivity may sometimes stem from traumatic experiences, particularly those that occur in early childhood. A child’s upbringing, including their caregiver’s parenting styles, can also impact the development of self-regulation skills. Kids who do not learn to regulate their behavior effectively may experience greater impulsivity as a result.

Environmental factors can also make more people with mental health conditions such as BPD and bipolar disorder effectively manage symptoms of impulsivity.

Genetic Factors

In some conditions, impulsivity might be influenced by genetic factors. Genetic mutations that impact the production of serotonin and dopamine, the neurotransmitters associated with mood and cognition, can contribute to increased impulsivity. Some research has also shown that genetic errors may increase heritable impulsivity.

Other conditions linked to impulsivity, including bipolar disorder and ADHD, are believed to share underlying genetic factors. These genetic influences likely impact the shared symptoms such as impulsivity.

Conditions Linked to Impulsivity

Impulsive behaviors can occur in a number of different mental health conditions:

• Physical causes of impulsivity, including acquired brain injury or a neurodegenerative disease like Alzheimer’s disease or Huntington’s disease.
• Bipolar mania, often in tandem with grandiosity and a flight of ideas (During an acute manic episode, a person will often act impulsivity with little thought of the consequence. Spending sprees and hypersexual behaviors are two common examples of impulsivity related to bipolar disorder).
• Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), known as hyperactive-impulsive ADHD, spurred by the child’s inability to keep still or control inappropriate behavior (It is this lack of control, combined with a constantly shifting focus of interest, that spurs impulsivity.)
• Substance use disorders, although the impulsiveness is typically exhibited under the influence of drugs, when craving drugs, or when actively seeking drugs.
• Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), closely aligned with BPD but differs in that there is a pervasive and persistent disregard for morals, social norms, and the rights and feelings of others
• Impulse control disorders: These include conditions such as intermittent explosive disorder, kleptomania, pyromania, and trichotillomania, which can result in risky behaviors that may harm the self or others.

Examples of Impulsivity

Impulsivity may be experessed in a variety of ways depending on the underlying cause. Every individual and situation is different. Some common examples of impulsivity include:

• Abruptly changing or canceling plans
• An inability to remain still
• Binge eating or drinking
• Clearing out belongings to “start anew”
• Constantly “turning over a new leaf”
• Destroying property
• Escalating confrontations
• Frequent emotional outbursts
• Inability to receive criticism without affront
• Joining and quitting a lot of groups
• Jumping to conclusions
• Meaningless or risky sex
• Over-apologizing
• Oversharing of emotions
• Overspending
• Physical violence
• Quitting a job suddenly
• Self-harm
• Self-mutilation
• Threatening to harm one’s self or others

Treatment for Impulsivity

While impulsive behaviors can be severe and pervasive, they can often be successfully managed with treatment. Many treatments for mental health conditions have components that specifically target impulsivity.

Psychotherapy

Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) focuses on building skills that reduce your impulsive behaviors and increase your ability to think and reflect before acting. By using coping mechanisms to handle intense emotions, a person with BPD is better equipped to face situations without confrontation.

Mindfulness, a skill taught in DBT, encourages you to stay in the moment, which can help you to remain more aware of your actions so you take the time to consider consequences. Practicing this technique can help you to take the time needed to reflect on your options, empowering you to make more rational decisions about how to respond to events around you. Mindfulness meditation is a modality often used to support the training.

Medication

Medications like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) sometimes combined with a low dose of an antipsychotic may also help. This is especially true if your behavior is extreme and poses a risk to your safety or those around you.

There are a number of drugs that specifically treat impulsivity, including:

• Atypical antipsychotics: Abilify (aripiprazole) is seen to reduce interpersonal problems and impulsivity.
• Mood stabilizers: Lamictal (lamotrigine) may help reduce impulsivity and anger, while Topamax (topiramate) may ameliorate impulsivity, anger, and anxiety.

Coping With Instability

In addition to complying with your treatment plan and seeing a therapist, there are steps you can take to better cope with impulsivity. Often, the first step is to identify the impulsive behaviors that you’d like to change. Next, you can try one of these strategies when you notice an urge to engage in one of those behaviors:

• Conduct a chain analysis, which allows you to identify the impulsive behavior, what happened prior to the behavior, evaluate your thoughts and feelings, and consider the consequences.
• Join a support group. If you lack resources like supportive friends and a family, joining a support group can be helpful in managing your impulsive behaviors. It will also allow you to talk to others about what has (and hasn’t) worked for them as far as coping with impulsive behaviors.
• Replace impulsive behaviors with healthy ones. While impulsivity may cause a short-term positive effect (for example, taking away anxiety or fear), there are healthy ways to cope, including going for a walk, journaling, talking to a trusting friend, or meeting with a support group.
• Practice deep breathing. Deep breathing is one way to help manage stress, which can help you regulate your mood and reduce impulsive behavior. Focusing on your breathing can also help distract you as you move past the urge to act impulsively.

The trait theory of personality suggests that people have certain basic traits, and it is the strength and intensity of those traits that account for personality differences. The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the study of personality. Trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed of broad dispositions.

Keep reading to learn how traits are defined and the different trait theories of personality that have been proposed. We also do a deeper dive into the four trait theories of personality:

• Allport’s trait theory
• Cattell’s 16-factor personality model
• Eysenck’s three-dimensional model
• The five-factor model of personality

What Is a Trait?

A trait is a personality characteristic that meets three criteria: it must be consistent, stable, and vary from person to person. Based on this definition, a trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain ways.

The way psychologists have thought about personality, including how they define traits, has evolved over time. Unlike many other theories of personality, such as psychoanalytic or humanistic theories, the trait approach to personality is focused on differences between individuals.

The combination and interaction of various traits form a personality that is unique to each person. Trait theory is focused on identifying and measuring these individual personality characteristics.

Allport’s Trait Theory

The first trait theory was proposed by psychologist Gordon Allport in 1936. Allport found that one English-language dictionary contained more than 4,000 words describing different personality traits. He categorized these traits into three levels: cardinal, central, and secondary.

Cardinal Traits

Allport suggested that cardinal traits are rare and dominating, usually developing later in life. They tend to define a person to such an extent that their names become synonymous with their personality. Examples include descriptive terms such as Machiavellian, narcissistic, Don Juan, and Christ-like.

Central Traits

These general characteristics form basic personality foundations. While central traits are not as dominating as cardinal traits, they describe the major characteristics you might use to describe another person. Descriptions such as “intelligent,” “honest,” “shy,” and “anxious” refer to central traits.

Secondary Traits

Secondary traits are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences. They often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances. Some examples include public speaking anxiety or impatience while waiting in line.

Cattell’s 16-Factor Personality Model

Trait theorist Raymond Cattell reduced the number of main personality traits from Allport’s initial list of over 4,000 down to 171. He did so primarily by eliminating uncommon traits and combining common characteristics.

Next, Cattell rated a large sample of individuals for these 171 different traits. Using a statistical technique known as factor analysis, he identified closely related terms and eventually reduced his list to 16 key personality traits. Among them are dominance, perfectionism, reasoning, and self-reliance.

According to Cattell, these 16 traits are the source of all human personalities. He also developed one of the most widely used personality assessments, the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire.

Eysenck’s 3 Dimensions of Personality

British psychologist Hans Eysenck believed that personality has a biological basis, developing a model of personality based on just three universal traits.

Introversion/Extraversion

Introversion involves directing attention to inner experiences, while extraversion relates to focusing attention outward, onto other people and the environment. A person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high in extraversion (often spelled “extroversion”) might be sociable and outgoing.

Neuroticism/Emotional Stability

This dimension of Eysenck’s trait theory is related to moodiness versus being even-tempered. The trait of neuroticism refers to an individual’s tendency to become upset or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant.

Psychoticism

Later, after studying individuals with mental illness, Eysenck added a personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals who are high in this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-empathetic, and manipulative.

Five-Factor Model of Personality

Both Cattell’s and Eysenck’s theories have been the subject of considerable research. This has led some theorists to believe that Cattell focused on too many traits, while Eysenck focused on too few. As a result, a new trait theory often referred to as the “Big Five” theory emerged.

This five-factor model of personality represents five core traits that interact to form human personality. While researchers often disagree about the exact labels for each dimension, they are commonly described as:

• Agreeableness: level of cooperation and caring for others
• Conscientiousness: level of thoughtfulness and structure
• Extraversion: level of socialness and emotional expressiveness
• Neuroticism: level of mood stability and emotional resilience
• Openness: level of adventure and creativity

What Are Your Dominant Traits? Try Our Test

Our fast and free personality test can help give you an idea of your dominant personality traits and how they may influence your behaviors.

This personality test was reviewed Rachel Goldman, PhD, FTOS

Criticisms of Trait Theory

Most theorists and psychologists agree that people can be described based on their personality traits. Yet, theorists continue to debate the number of basic traits that make up human personality. While trait theory has an objectivity that some personality theories lack (such as Freud’s psychoanalytic theory), it also has weaknesses.

Some of the most common criticisms of trait theory center on the fact that traits are often poor predictors of behavior. While an individual may score high on assessments of a specific trait, they may not always behave that way in every situation. Another problem is that trait theories do not address how or why individual differences in personality develop or emerge.

Final Thoughts

The study of personality and what shapes and influences each person is fascinating. Those who study this field have varying opinions. However, they do build off one another and theorists tend to refine the work of their predecessors, which is common in scientific pursuits.

What is most important to understand is that everyone has different personality traits. We each have certain traits that dominate our personality, along with a myriad of traits that can arise in different situations. Also, our traits can change over time and be shaped by our experiences.

The truth is that everyone lies from time to time. Small lies to spare someone’s feelings, omissions to avoid revealing too much, and yes, even blatant attempts to mislead are all examples of how lies can work their way into everyday communication.

But lies can have a serious impact. They can destroy relationships, undermine trust, and wreak havoc on your personal life.

The good news is that you can stop lying. It might not be easy, and it might take time, but the desire to stop lies can be enough to help you overcome the temptation to continue with this behavior.

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Signs of a Lying Problem

So how can you tell when lying has started to erode the trust and communication in your relationships? How do you recognize that lies are starting to harm your daily life? Some signs that you might have a problem with lying:

• You tell lies for no justifiable reason. 
• You find ways to excuse your lies, such as thinking they are necessary to protect people from the truth.
• You have begun to fabricate stories about people and events to hide the truth.
• Other people have commented on your lies. 
• People close to you no longer trust the things you say.
• You feel like no one knows the “real you.”
• Your lies have led to serious consequences such as losing relationships, work, or other opportunities.

How to Stop Lying

If you notice yourself lying more than you want to, then it is time to begin examining why this happens and how to stop lying for good. Here are some things to consider:

Stop Justifying Dishonesty

Lying isn’t an uncommon behavior, and everyone does lie from time to time. But it’s important to recognize that people are generally quite truthful in their everyday communication, according to much of the research on deception.

It’s difficult to gauge exactly how frequently people lie since estimating that number relies on people being, well, honest. Some of the best estimates suggest that people lie around once or twice per day. Research also suggests that there is a small proportion of people who lie far more than the average.

In one sample, just 5% of the people told a whopping 50% of the reported lies. Studies also suggest that the mistruths told by these practiced liars also tend to have more significant consequences if discovered.

So if you are telling more lies than the average person each day, there’s a strong chance that this dishonesty might affect different areas of your life. Acknowledging the problematic behavior is often the first step toward making a lasting change.

Understand Why You Lie

If you are trying to be more honest in your everyday communication, it can be helpful to understand the types of lies you’re telling and why you’re telling them in the first place.

Deception researcher Bella DePaulo suggests that people tend to lie about five key topics:

• Their opinions and feelings
• Their actions, plans, and location
• Their achievements, knowledge, and failings
• Explanations for their behaviors
• Facts and personal possessions

Sometimes these lies are deliberate attempts to manipulate others to achieve some personal benefit. In other cases, they might be a way to avoid hurting someone with the truth or hide something that you prefer to keep private.

In fact, researchers distinguish between two different types of lies. Prosocial lies are the small lies that people tell to protect feelings or avoid conflict. On the other hand, antisocial lies intentionally mislead or deceive others for personal gain.

Consider how lying is affecting your life. Be honest with yourself about how lying is affecting yourself and others.

If you are telling lies for personal gain or manipulating others, you will likely experience a decline in the quality of your close relationships. Sometimes when you better understand the harm that lying can do, you’ll be less likely to rely on it in the future.

Consider the Consequences

DePaulo has suggested that while we generally view lying as wrong, the most common types of lies people tell are those designed to protect their self-esteem, spare other people’s feelings, or get other people to like them. These kinds of lies might not necessarily be harmless but tend to be more understandable than those intended to outright exploit or manipulate others.

Clearly, there are times when lying can serve a purpose. For example, you might hide your opinion about a book that your friend loves because you don’t want to lessen their enjoyment. Or you might not share that you attended a social event to which your friend was not invited. While the goal of these lies by omission is to spare someone’s feelings, that doesn’t mean that even the most well-intentioned lies won’t have consequences. 

There are certain situations where it is understandable to withhold the truth or even lie outright. In other cases, the question then becomes whether the other person actually benefits from being told a lie.

Even when you tell an altruistic lie to spare someone else’s feelings, it is important to remember that you are making assumptions about what you think the other person wants to hear. Is that person looking for positive affirmation about a choice they have already made, or do they really want to hear your honest assessment?

Put Your Relationships First

Lying can have several negative effects, including lasting damage to your relationships. Even if you feel like the occasional fib can’t hurt, there are many compelling reasons to curb the lying habit. 

When people feel that they cannot rely on you to be truthful, it impairs your trust with friends, family, romantic partners, and others in your life. And once people feel they can’t trust you, it can be difficult to regain that trust.

Remember That Lies Create Stress

Telling a lie might solve a problem quickly, but maintaining a lie can be stressful and lead to long-lasting problems. Even small lies can snowball and grow bigger than you intended. It is easy to forget how much it costs to maintain the habit when the results are temporarily positive.

While more research is needed to understand the connection, decreased stress is one factor that might play a role in explaining these benefits.

Practice Being Authentic

Sometimes people lie because they think revealing their true feelings about something will lead to rejection. The problem is that by hiding what you really think or feel, you’re not giving people the opportunity to know the “real you.”

What happens is that you then feel the need to maintain a facade to maintain those relationships. By being honest, you’ll be able to be who you truly are without feeling the need to hide.

You can only be truly honest when you are completely vulnerable with your feelings and experiences. When you lie about the past or present, it makes it hard to be open with others.

Consider How Others Feel

People often describe themselves as good at spotting a lie; research suggests that people are actually surprisingly poor at detecting deception. In one study, participants were only able to detect lies accurately 54% of the time—only slightly better than what they might catch by simply guessing.

But this doesn’t mean that they won’t discover your lie or that your deception won’t hurt them. If and when people find that they have been deceived, they may feel hurt, manipulated, exploited, and betrayed.

Find Alternatives to Lying

One important way to stop lying can be to identify the situations where you might be tempted to lie and think of alternatives ways to cope. So what are some substitutes that you can use in place of lying?

• Start small. Think of one situation where you are the most likely to tell a lie, then focus on changing that one behavior. For example, if you are most likely to lie when your partner asks for your opinion on something, consider what you can do to be more honest in that situation.
• Be kind and tactful. Consider how you can phrase your feelings or opinions in a way that won’t make the other person feel bad. Honest feedback doesn’t have to be brutal or hurtful. Instead, you might try sharing gentle but honest opinions about what you truly feel in a way that maintains prosocial relationships.
• Write it down. If sharing the truth out loud is too difficult, consider writing it down and sharing it in a letter, email, or text message.
• Don’t share everything. You can tell the truth without sharing everything. For example, if people are curious about some aspect of your life that you don’t want to share, be honest about your feelings. Say something like, “I’m not comfortable sharing that.” This allows you to be honest about your feelings without resorting to a lie.
• Change the subject. If you truly don’t want to share something or are trying to keep something private, consider shifting the topic of the conversation to something else rather than telling a lie.

Changing a habit takes time, so it can be helpful to plan how you’re going to start overcoming this behavior. Map out some of the steps you will follow to start being more truthful from now on.

Talk to a Professional

If you are struggling to stop lying or if the behavior feels impulsive or out of control, consider talking to a mental health professional. You should also consider talking to a therapist if lying has started to negatively impact your life, such as affecting your relationships, work, academics, or other aspects of your daily life.

A therapist can help you understand if your behavior might be related to a mental health condition, explore the underlying reasons behind your dishonesty, and help you find new ways to cope that don’t involve lying. In cases where lying has affected your close relationships, you might consider couples counseling, family therapy, or group therapy to find ways to mend those connections.