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How long it takes ADHD medication to kick in and how long it is effective depends on the type of medication you have been prescribed. Typically, ADHD medication falls into two categories: stimulants and non-stimulants.

Stimulants, like Adderall, become effective fairly quickly, often kicking in within an hour, and lasting up to four hours. Adderall XR, the long-acting formula of Adderall, lasts for up to 12 hours.

Non-stimulants can take days or weeks until their full therapeutic effect is felt.

Stimulant ADHD Medications

Stimulant medications are the first line of ADHD treatment, as they are considered to be the most effective in treating symptoms. They act on the central nervous system and increase the number of certain neurotransmitters in the brain. The increase of the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine improves focus and concentration while reducing hyperactivity and impulsive behavior.

Adderall and Adderall XR (amphetamine and dextroamphetamine)

Adderall starts to work in approximately 30 minutes to one hour. The effects of Adderall typically begin to wear away after four hours. Adderall XR lasts approximately 12 hours.

Concerta (methylphenidate)

Concerta is a long-lasting methylphenidate medication that uses a unique delivery system called OROS (osmotic controlled release oral delivery system). Its effects are usually felt within one hour of swallowing the tablet and last from 10 to 12 hours.

Daytrana (methylphenidate)

Daytrana is a methylphenidate patch for children to wear. The medication travels through the skin and is absorbed directly into the bloodstream. The patch takes approximately two hours to start working and remains effective between one and three hours after it has been removed. It can be worn for up to nine hours.

Dexedrine (dextroamphetamine)

Dexedrine becomes effective within 30 minutes to one hour. It is available in short-acting tablets, which are effective for about four to six hours. Extended-release capsules of Dexedrine are called Spansules and are effective for approximately eight to 10 hours.

Focalin and Focalin XR (dexmethylphenidate)

Focalin and Focalin XR can become effective within 30 minutes of taking the medication. Focalin lasts approximately four hours and Focalin XR can remain active for up to 12 hours.

Jornay PM (methylphenidate hydrochloride)

An extended-release methylphenidate capsule, Jornay PM is unique in that it is given the evening before, usually between 6 p.m. and 9 p.m. The effects do not begin to occur for about 12 hours and then last much of the following day.

Mydayis (dextroamphetamine/amphetamine)

Mydayis is a longer-acting, mixed amphetamine salts formulation that starts working in about two hours or so and can last up to 16 hours.

Ritalin and Ritalin LA (methylphenidate)

Ritalin takes 20 to 30 minutes after swallowing before it starts to work. Short-acting Ritalin lasts three to five hours and long-acting (Ritalin LA) lasts for approximately eight hours.

Quillivant XR (methylphenidate)

Quillivant XR is a methylphenidate liquid formulation designed for children who have problems swallowing pills. It becomes effective within 45 minutes and continues to work for up to 12 hours.

Vyvanse (lisdexamfetamine)

Vyvanse is a prodrug, which means it needs to be taken orally and metabolized by the body’s enzymes to become effective. Because of this, it can take approximately one to two hours to take effect and lasts approximately 14 hours.

Nuvigil (armodafinil) and Provigil (modafinil)

Typically prescribed to treat excessive daytime somnolence caused by conditions like sleep apnea, these medications are used off-label to treat ADHD. Usually, these medications are taken once per day to treat narcolepsy or obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and an hour before a shift to treat shift work sleep disorder (SWSD).

Dyanavel XR (amphetamine)

Dyanavel XR is available as either an extended-release oral suspension or an extended-release once-daily tablet for children age six and older. A starting dosage between 2.5 mg and 5 mg is typically taken once daily in the morning and must be taken with food.

The dosage may be gradually increased to a maximum of 20 mg per day. The medication starts to work within one hour and continues working for up to 13 hours. 

Non-Stimulant Medications

Non-stimulant medications are second-line treatment options for ADHD. This is because, while they are effective in treating ADHD, their effectiveness is not as universal as stimulant medications. Non-stimulants are a helpful option for someone who is not able to tolerate stimulant medication because of side effects or the presence of an underlying medical condition.

These are the common non-stimulants prescribed for ADHD and how long they typically take to work:

Kapvay (clonidine)

Originally prescribed to help with high blood pressure, Kapvay can take two weeks or more to become effective.

Norpramin (desipramine)

Norpramin is a tricyclic antidepressant used for ADHD. It may take several days or even weeks to see the therapeutic benefits from tricyclic antidepressants, but once this level is reached, benefits last throughout the day.

Intuniv (guanfacine)

Intuniv is a time-release form of the antihypertensive drug guanfacine. It has been developed to have a sustained release lasting for the waking hours. It takes approximately two weeks for Intuniv to become effective.

Strattera (atomoxetine)

Strattera is a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (NRI) that is chemically similar to an antidepressant. It can take four to six weeks before the maximum therapeutic effect is felt. When therapeutic levels are reached, Strattera is effective for 24 hours.

Qelbree (viloxazine extended-release capsules)

Qelbree is a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI). It releases medication slowly over several hours and can be taken once daily. A significant reduction in ADHD symptoms may be seen in one to six weeks.

Wellbutrin (bupropion)

Wellbutrin is an antidepressant that can be prescribed as an off-label ADHD treatment option.

It can take approximately three to seven days to become effective and four to six weeks to reach full effectiveness. The XL version is taken once a day and lasts 24 hours.

How Do I Know If Adderall and Other Meds Are Working?

In general, if your ADHD medication is working, you’ll begin to feel less anxious and experience fewer mood swings. In addition, you’ll be better able to:

• Complete tasks you find boring
• Control impulsive behaviors
• Listen during conversations
• Sit still
• Stay on task

To know if your meds are working, be strategic. Jot down the ADHD characteristics you would like to see improvements with. Then, when you start taking a medication, document any changes in these symptoms or personal observations about them. Ask your partner or family members for feedback, too, as they might notice changes you were unaware of. 

If you are a parent, record the changes you notice in your child, your child’s feedback, and that of your child’s teacher. In addition to being helpful to you, this information will also be beneficial for your doctor.

People often wonder how long it takes for their ADHD meds to work—or if they are working at all. Some of this uncertainty is due to the fact that people can experience noticeable improvements right away, subtle improvements, or delayed or no improvement.

• Immediate improvement: Some people notice improvements in their ADHD symptoms on the first day of taking their medication. They wonder if their medication could really be working that quickly or whether the difference they felt was a placebo effect.
• Subtle improvements: This group is unsure if their medication is working. They think it might be, but any changes are subtle.
• Delayed improvements: Some people take medication and do not notice a difference in their ADHD symptoms. They are not sure if it is because of a time delay between taking ADHD medication and it being effective, or if their medication isn’t working for them.

Side Effects of ADHD Medications

In addition, some people may notice side effects before they notice an improvement in their symptoms. Side effects of stimulant medication may include:

• Decreased appetite
• Headaches
• Increased heart rate or blood pressure
• Irritability as the medication wears off
• Mood swings
• Nausea or vomiting
• Trouble falling or staying asleep

Side effects for non-stimulant medication may include:

• Constipation
• Decreased appetite
• Dizziness
• Drowsiness and fatigue
• Dry mouth or throat
• Insomnia
• Skin issues
• Nausea, upset stomach, and vomiting

Finding the Right ADHD Medication

If you have been taking ADHD medications and have not experienced an improvement in your symptoms, visit your doctor and tell them about your experience.

Your doctor will usually start you at a low dose and gradually increase it until the right therapeutic dose for you is found. This is where there is an improvement in your symptoms without negative side effects.

If higher doses of the medication are not helpful, your doctor might change your medication from an amphetamine medication to a methylphenidate medication or vice versa. A non-stimulant medication might be suggested, either alone or with stimulant medication, as another option.

Although some people experience positive results on the first day of taking medication, for many people, it takes a few tries until they find the right medication and dosage that works for them. 

If a child isn’t responding to medication, your healthcare provider may also test for any coexisting conditions, including depression, bipolar disorder, or a learning disability or behavioral problem.

Binge eating disorder is the most common eating disorder in the United States. It is a psychiatric condition that requires treatment, says Janet Lydecker, PhD, assistant professor and team member of the Program for Obesity, Weight, and Eating Research (POWER) at Yale School of Medicine.

While most people occasionally overeat or find comfort in food, that doesn’t necessarily mean they have a binge eating disorder. A healthcare professional can evaluate you and determine whether you have this condition. 

Accordingly, they will determine a treatment plan based on your needs and goals. The treatment plan may involve therapy, medication, or a combination of the two.

This article covers how binge eating disorder is diagnosed, treatment options, the efficacy of treatment, and how binge eating disorder treatment can be improved.

Diagnosis of Binge Eating Disorder

“A psychologist or another healthcare provider will interview a patient about their eating habits in order to make a diagnosis,” says Lydecker.

According to Lydecker, binge eating disorder has some key features, which include: 

• The individual has regular binge eating episodes where they eat a large amount of food in a short amount of time until they are uncomfortably full.
• The person is upset or distressed about their binge eating habits.
• They often feel out of control when eating, like they can’t stop once they’ve started, or feel zoned out while eating. This loss of control is what makes binge eating different from normal eating or overeating.

Additionally, binge eating disorder is different from bulimia, which includes both binge eating and purging of food.

Treating Binge Eating Disorder

Lydecker outlines the treatments for binge eating disorder, which include medication and therapy.

Medication

Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (LDX), sold under the brand name Vyvanse, is the only FDA-approved medication to treat binge eating disorder. 

This medication is a stimulant that is also used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 

As with any medication, Vyvanse has several potential side effects, so it is important to discuss the safety of taking the medication with a healthcare provider who knows you. For example, your healthcare provider would carefully assess whether you have heart problems or are at risk for stroke. 

Other medications that may be given for binge eating disorder are used off-label because they are not approved for the treatment of this condition. Several of these are weight-loss medications because many patients with binge eating disorder also have obesity and one of their goals may be to lose weight for their health. 

Weight loss medications can include Xenical (orlistat), Qsymia (phentermine-topiramate), Contrave (naltrexone-bupropion), Victoza (liraglutide), Ozempic (semaglutide), and Imcivree (setmelanotide).

People with binge eating disorder who also have co-occurring mood disorders may be prescribed antidepressant medications.

Therapy

The recommended psychological treatment for binge eating disorder is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which is very effective at reducing the number of binge eating episodes individuals have. 

CBT treatment usually involves weekly meetings with a therapist that focus on how thoughts connect with emotions and binge eating behaviors.

The therapist works with the patient to interrupt any triggers leading to binge eating episodes. CBT also teaches patients to problem-solve behavior patterns to reduce the likelihood of binge eating.

Other psychological treatments include interpersonal therapy, which focuses on improving relationships to reduce distress, and behavioral weight-loss counseling, which focuses on setting goals and using social support to make gradual, sustainable changes in eating and exercise.

Treatment Outcomes

Lydecker discusses treatment duration and outcomes for binge eating disorder below.

Many individuals with binge eating disorder have two goals when they start treatment:

1. They want to stop binge eating
2. They want to lose weight for their health

In general, CBT is very good at helping individuals stop binge eating, but it does not necessarily help with weight loss. Behavioral weight-loss counseling tends to be better with weight loss than CBT and also helps individuals to stop binge eating. 

Medications seem to be helpful while patients are taking them, but not much is known about how patients do long-term after they stop taking the medications. 

More importantly, many patients fail to improve with just one form of treatment, so the next step in treating binge eating disorder is figuring out whether combining some of these treatments is more powerful and lasting than using one treatment by itself. 

Tips to Improve Treatment Outcomes

These are some strategies that can help you reduce binge eating and improve treatment outcomes:

• Pay attention to hunger cues: Eat when you’re hungry. Pay attention to cues such as a growling stomach, irritability, lightheadedness, and low blood sugar levels. Don’t wait until you’re starving to eat, as that could trigger binge eating. Research has shown that eating regular meals helps reduce the risk of binge eating.
• Hide your trigger foods: If there are certain foods that you tend to eat during binge eating episodes, try to avoid keeping them at home. If another family member wants to keep them in the house, try explaining why you would rather they didn’t, or ask them to hide them from you. You can ask them to give you a small portion to satisfy your cravings and so you don’t feel deprived. Avoid eating these foods when you’re alone.
• Identify your triggers: Try to identify the triggers that cause you to binge eat, and avoid them as much as possible. For instance, if you tend to binge eat at buffet-style restaurants, try to avoid making plans to go to those places. Avoid food-related social interactions if they are triggers for you; plan other activities instead.
• Eat mindfully: Make it a point not to eat while working, reading, watching television, or doing other activities. Be mindful of the food you’re eating. Pay attention to the way it tastes and feels. Avoid eating when you’re bored. This can help you better manage emotional eating.
• Maintain a food journal: Keep a food journal in which you write down everything you eat in a day. This can help you be accountable to yourself. You can also use your journal to note down any other emotions you’re experiencing. Reporting your food intake to someone else a few times a week can also help increase accountability.
• Plan your meals: Building a healthy meal plan can help ensure that you’re prepared for mealtime and less likely to resort to binge eating. It can be helpful to see a nutritionist, as they can help you develop a nutritious meal plan that doesn’t leave you feeling deprived.
• Stay active: Exercising can help you stay fit and active. Pick an activity you enjoy and ask a friend to go with you, to make the habit more likely to stick.
• Drink lots of water: Make it a point to drink plenty of water (at least 64 fluid ounces per day). Binge eating diets can involve a lot of salt and sugar, which can dehydrate you, so it’s important to hydrate. Thirst can also be mistaken for hunger and cause you to binge eat.
• Put away the weighing scale: If you find yourself weighing yourself often and thinking about your weight all the time, it may help to put away your weighing scale and only check your weight at your healthcare provider’s office. Weighing yourself can sometimes be a trigger for binge eating.

Schedules of reinforcement play an important role in operant conditioning, a learning process in which new behaviors are acquired and modified through their association with consequences. Reinforcing a behavior increases the likelihood that it will occur again in the future while punishing a behavior decreases the likelihood that it will be repeated.

Why do schedules of reinforcement matter so much? When and how often we reinforce a behavior can dramatically impact the strength and rate of the response.

This article discusses what schedules of reinforcement are, the different schedules that can be used, and which one is best depending on the learning goals.

What Are Schedules of Reinforcement?

Schedules of reinforcement are rules stating which instances of behavior will be reinforced. In some cases, a behavior might be reinforced every time it occurs. Sometimes, a behavior might not be reinforced at all.

Reinforcement schedules occur in both naturally occurring learning situations and more structured training situations. In real-world settings, behaviors will probably not be reinforced every time they occur. In situations where you intentionally try to strengthen a specific action (such as in school, sports, or animal training), you would follow a specific reinforcement schedule.

Some schedules are better suited to certain types of training situations. In some cases, training might call for one schedule and then switch to another once the desired behavior has been taught. The two foundational forms of reinforcement schedules are referred to as continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement.

Continuous Schedules of Reinforcement

In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. This schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning to create a strong association between the behavior and response.

Imagine, for example, that you are trying to teach a dog to shake your hand. During the initial stages of learning, you would stick to a continuous reinforcement schedule to introduce and establish the behavior. This might involve grabbing the dog’s paw, shaking it, saying “shake,” and then offering a reward each and every time you perform these steps. Eventually, the dog will start to perform the action on its own.

Partial Schedules of Reinforcement

Once the response is firmly established, a continuous reinforcement schedule is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule. In partial (or intermittent) reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction.

Think of the earlier example in which you were training a dog to shake. While you initially used continuous reinforcement, reinforcing the behavior every time, long after the dog has learned the trick, is simply unrealistic. In time, you would switch to a partial schedule to provide additional reinforcement once the behavior has been established or after considerable time has passed.

There are four schedules of partial reinforcement. Two are ratio schedules, which are schedules based on how many responses have occurred. The other two are interval schedules or schedules based on how much time has elapsed.

Fixed-Ratio Schedules

Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce a response only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of response with only a brief pause after the reinforcer is delivered.

• An example of a fixed-ratio schedule would be delivering a food pellet to a rat after it presses a bar five times.

Variable-Ratio Schedules

Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding.

• For example, in a lab setting, this might involve delivering food pellets to a rat after one bar press, again after four bar presses, and then again after two bar presses. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.

Fixed-Interval Schedules

Fixed-interval schedules reward a first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high responses near the end of the interval but slower responses immediately after the reinforcer is delivered.

• An example of this in a lab setting would be reinforcing a rat with a lab pellet for the first bar press after a 30-second interval has elapsed.

Variable-Interval Schedules

Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.

• An example of this would be delivering a food pellet to a ​rat after the first bar press following a 30-second interval, a second pellet for the first response following a 90-second interval, and a third pellet for the first response following a 60-second interval.

Partial Schedule	Timing of Reinforcement	Response Rate
Fixed-Ratio (FR)	After a specified number of responses	High, steady
Variable-Ratio (VR)	After an unpredictable number of responses	High, steady
Fixed-Interval (FI)	After a specified amount of time	High near end of interval, but slower directly after delivery of reinforcer
Variable-Interval (VI)	After an unpredictable amount of time	Slow, steady

Schedules of Reinforcement and Extinction

Once a reinforcement is stopped, the response starts to decline. This is referred to as extinction and refers to the length of time the response continues when the reinforcement is no longer applied. Typically, fixed schedules of reinforcement are more prone to extinction, while variable schedules are more resistant.

Extinction can result in undesirable side effects.

• One is known as a response burst when the response temporarily increases in amount, magnitude, or duration before becoming extinct.
• Another is response variability, which often includes the development of other problematic behaviors to get the same response.

Examples of Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement can be applied in different settings. They can be used in education, for instance, such as by reinforcing students after a certain number of assignments have been completed or after going a certain amount of time without any behavioral issues.

An example of using schedule of reinforcements in a parenting scenario is when potty training a child. You might start by giving the child a piece of candy every time they use the potty (fixed-ratio). Then, you may transition to only providing reinforcement after using the potty several days in a row (either fixed-interval or variable-interval).

Schedules of reinforcement can also be used in applied behavioral analysis or ABA. In this case, reinforcers are used to improve some type of behavior. For instance, research has found that these schedules may be beneficial for helping people with intellectual or developmental difficulties improve communication behaviors.

Using the Appropriate Schedule

Deciding when to reinforce a behavior can depend on a number of factors. In cases where you are specifically trying to teach a new behavior, a continuous schedule is often a good choice. Once the behavior has been learned, switching to a partial schedule is often preferable.

In daily life, partial schedules of reinforcement occur much more frequently than continuous ones. For example, imagine if you received a reward every time you showed up to work on time. Over time, instead of the reward being a positive reinforcement, the denial of the reward could be regarded as negative punishment.

Instead, rewards like these are usually doled out on a much less predictable partial reinforcement schedule. Not only are these much more realistic, but they also tend to produce higher response rates while being less susceptible to extinction.

Partial schedules reduce the risk of satiation once a behavior has been established. If a reward is given without end, the subject may stop performing the behavior if the reward is no longer wanted or needed.

For example, imagine that you are trying to teach a dog to sit. If you use food as a reward every time, the dog might stop performing once it is full. In such instances, something like praise or attention may be more effective in reinforcing an already established behavior.

Final Thoughts

Operant conditioning can be a powerful learning tool. The schedules of reinforcement used during the training and maintenance process can have a major influence on how quickly a behavior is acquired, the strength of the response, and how frequently the behavior is displayed. It can also determine how quickly a behavior can be extinguished.

In order to determine which schedule is preferable, consider different aspects of the situation, including the type of behavior that is being taught and the type of response that is desired.

Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

1. Hulac D, Benson N, Nesmith M, Wollersheim S. Using variable interval reinforcement schedules to support students in the classroom: An introduction with illustrative examples. J Educ Res Prac. 2016;16(1):90-96. doi:10.5590/JERAP.2016.06.1.06

2. Trump CE, Ayres KM, Quinland KK, Zabala KA. Differential reinforcement without extinction: A review of the literature. Behav Anal Res Pract. 2020;20(2):94-107. doi:10.1037/bar0000169

3. Muharib R, Walker V, Alresheed F, Gerow S. Effects of multiple schedules of reinforcement on appropriate communication and challenging behaviors: A meta-analysis. J Autism Development Disord. 2021;51:613-631. doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04569-2

Additional Reading

• Nevid JS. Essentials of Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Fifth edition. Cengage Learning; 2018.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the “Everything Psychology Book.”

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Color psychology examines how different colors affect our thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Some research suggests that specific colors may boost mood, improve focus, increase appetite, or change energy levels. Understanding these effects may help you use color more intentionally and effectively in your home, work, and daily life.

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What Is Color Psychology?

Color psychology is the study of how different colors affect human mood and behavior. Do you feel energized when you see red? Does the color blue make you feel calm and relaxed?

Artists and interior designers have long believed that color can dramatically affect moods, feelings, and emotions. “Colors, like features, follow the changes of the emotions,” the artist Pablo Picasso once remarked. 

Different topics that are of interest in this area include:

• The meanings of colors
• How colors impact physiological responses
• Emotional reactions to color
• Factors that impact color preferences
• Cultural differences in the meanings and associations of different colors
• Whether colors can impact mental health
• How colors can influence behaviors
• Ways that colors can be utilized to promote well-being
• How colors can be used to improve safety and design more optimal home and work environments

Much of the evidence in this emerging area is anecdotal at best, but researchers and experts have made a few important discoveries and observations about the psychology of color and its effect on moods, feelings, and behaviors.

For example, color is a powerful communication tool and can be used to signal action, influence mood, and even influence physiological reactions. Certain colors have been associated with physiological changes, including increased blood pressure, increased metabolism, and eyestrain.

“It’s amazing how colors can truly impact our mood and influence our behavior,” says Rachel Goldman, PhD.

How Do Different Colors Affect Us?

The scientific exploration of color psychology is relatively new, but people have long been interested in the nature and impact of color. In ancient cultures, colors were often used to treat different conditions and influence emotions. They also played a role in different spiritual practices.

Why is color such a powerful force in our lives? What effects can it have on our bodies and minds? While perceptions of color are somewhat subjective, some color effects have universal meanings.

• Warm colors: Colors in the red part of the color spectrum are warm, including red, orange, and yellow. These warm colors evoke emotions ranging from warmth and comfort to anger and hostility.
• Cool colors: Colors on the blue side of the spectrum are known as cool colors and include blue, purple, and green. These colors are often described as calm, but can also evoke feelings of sadness or indifference.

One 2020 study that surveyed the emotional associations of 4,598 people from 30 different countries found that people commonly associate certain colors with specific emotions. According to the study results:

• Black: 51% of respondents associated black with sadness
• White: 43% of people associated white with relief
• Red: 68% associated red with love
• Blue: 35% linked blue to feelings of relief 
• Green: 39% linked green to contentment
• Yellow: 52% felt that yellow means joy
• Purple: 25% reported they associated purple with pleasure
• Brown: 36% linked brown to disgust
• Orange: 44% associated orange with joy
• Pink: 50% linked pink with love

The study’s researchers suggested that such results indicated that color-emotion associations appear to have universal qualities. These shared meanings may play an essential role in aiding communication.

“Given the prevalence of color, one would expect color psychology to be a well-developed area,” researchers Andrew Elliot and Markus Maier noted in a review of the existing research on the psychology of color. “Surprisingly, little theoretical or empirical work has been conducted to date on color’s influence on psychological functioning, and the work that has been done has been driven mostly by practical concerns, not scientific rigor.”

Can Color Be Used as Therapy?

Several ancient cultures, including the Egyptians and Chinese, practiced chromotherapy, or the use of colors to heal. Chromotherapy is also known as light therapy or colorology.

Colorology is still used today as a holistic or alternative treatment. In this treatment:

• Red is used to stimulate the body and mind and to increase circulation.
• Yellow is thought to stimulate the nerves and purify the body.
• Orange is used to heal the lungs and to increase energy levels.
• Blue is believed to soothe illnesses and treat pain.
• Indigo shades are thought to alleviate skin problems.

While more research is needed, a 2020 study suggested that chromotherapy may be an effective way to help combat feelings of compassion fatigue and post-traumatic stress in intensive care unit nurses.

What Research Says About Color Psychology

Most psychologists view color therapy with skepticism and point out that the supposed effects of color are often grossly exaggerated. Colors also have different meanings in different cultures.

However, existing research has found that color can impact people in a variety of surprising ways:

• While-colored pills are associated with greater pain relief, while red pills are associated with having greater stimulant properties. 
• Red causes people to react more quickly and forcefully, which might be helpful during athletic activities, according to researchers.
• Black-uniformed players are more likely to receive penalties in competitive sporting events.

Additional Research Is Still Needed

Interest in color psychology is growing, but several unanswered questions remain. Examples of questions researchers still need to explore include:

• How do color associations develop?
• How powerful is the influence of these associations on real-world behavior?
• Can color be used to increase worker productivity or workplace safety?
• What colors have an impact on consumer behavior?
• Do certain personality types prefer specific colors?

As researchers continue to explore such questions, we may soon learn more about color’s impact on human psychology.

Zena O’Connor, a faculty member in the Department of Architecture, Design, and Planning at the University of Sydney, suggests that people should be wary of many claims about the psychology of color.

“In addition, such claims often refer to outdated research without referring to current research findings.”

How Color Shapes Focus and Performance

Studies have also shown that certain colors can have an impact on performance. No one likes to see a graded test covered in red ink, but some research found that seeing the color red before taking an exam actually hurts test performance.

The results of one older study revealed that students who were presented with the red number before taking the test scored more than 20% lower than those offered with the green and black numbers.

How Color Influences What We Buy

Color psychology suggests that various shades can have various effects, from boosting our moods to causing anxiety. But could the color of the products you purchase ever say something about your personality? For example, could the color of the car you buy somehow relate to some underlying personality traits or quirks?

When buying items, your color preferences might say something about the image you are trying to project. Color preferences, from the clothes you wear to the car you drive, can sometimes make a statement about how we want other people to perceive us. Other factors, such as age and gender, can also influence our color choices.

• White: As many of our readers have suggested, the color white can feel fresh and clean. The color is often used to evoke a sense of youth and modernity. 
• Black: Our readers often describe black as a “powerful” color, which might be the reason why black is the most popular color for luxury vehicles. People often describe the color as sexy, powerful, and mysterious.
• Silver: It’s the third most popular vehicle color and is linked to a sense of innovation and modernity. High-tech products are often silver, so the color is often seen as new, modern, and cutting-edge.
• Red: Red is a bold, attention-getting color, so preferring this type of car might mean you want to project an image of power, action, and confidence.
• Blue: People often describe blue as the color of stability and safety. Driving a blue car or SUV might indicate that you are dependable and trustworthy.
• Yellow: According to the experts, driving a yellow vehicle might mean you are a happy person in general and perhaps a bit more willing than the average person to take risks.
• Gray: The experts suggest that people who drive gray cars don’t want to stand out and instead prefer something more subtle.

A person might prefer brighter, more attention-getting colors when they are younger, but find themselves drawn to more traditional colors as they grow older. The personality of the buyer can play an important role in color selection, but buyers are often heavily influenced by factors such as price as well as availability.

For example, purchasing a white vehicle might be less about wanting people to think that you are young and modern and more about the climate you live in; people who live in hot climates typically prefer light-colored vehicles over dark ones.