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Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors can sometimes seem out of step with what is considered typical. When that happens, they can feel overwhelming and interfere with a person’s ability to function normally in their daily life.

This might involve studying more common conditions like anxiety or depression, but it can also involve more serious mental illnesses. The goal is to understand the symptoms, causes, risk factors, and treatments so that people get the empathy, support, and help they need to manage their illness.

What Is Abnormal Psychology?

Abnormal psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with psychopathology and abnormal behavior, or the patterns of emotion, thought, and behavior that can be signs of a mental health condition. The term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) to personality disorders.

Counselors, psychologists, and psychotherapists often work directly in this field, often in a clinical context. Rather than the distinction between normal and abnormal, psychologists in this field focus on the level of distress that behaviors, thoughts, or emotions might cause.

Defining Abnormality

If a behavior is creating problems in a person’s life or is disruptive to other people, then this would be an “abnormal” behavior. In such cases, the behavior may require some type of mental health intervention.

Abnormal behavior tends to be:

• Infrequent: However, statistical infrequency alone is not a sufficient definition. Some healthy, desirable, and beneficial behaviors also occur infrequently. Other uncommon behaviors or characteristics have no bearing on how a person behaves or functions. So, just because something is unusual or uncommon does not mean it should be defined as abnormal.
• Distressing: These behaviors may cause emotional pain or discomfort for the person or the people around them.
• Disruptive: These behaviors interfere with a person’s ability to function in everyday life, affecting work, relationships, or self-care.
• Socially problematic: It may violate social norms and make it difficult for people to function in social settings and maintain social relationships. 

What Are the Four Approaches to Abnormal Psychology?

There are several different approaches used to understand abnormal psychology. While some psychologists or psychiatrists may focus on a single viewpoint, many mental health professionals use elements from multiple viewpoints to better understand and treat psychological disorders.

Psychoanalytic Approach

This perspective has its roots in the theories of Sigmund Freud. The psychoanalytic approach suggests that many abnormal behaviors stem from unconscious thoughts, desires, and memories.

Therapists who take this approach believe that by analyzing their memories, behaviors, thoughts, and even dreams, people can uncover and deal with some of the feelings that have been leading to maladaptive behaviors and distress.

Behavioral Approach

This approach to abnormal psychology focuses on observable behaviors. In behavioral therapy, the focus is on reinforcing positive behaviors and not reinforcing maladaptive behaviors.

The behavioral approach targets only the behavior itself, not the underlying causes. When dealing with abnormal behavior, a behavioral therapist might utilize strategies such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning to help eliminate unwanted behaviors and teach new behaviors.

Medical Approach

This approach to abnormal psychology focuses on the biological causes of mental illness, emphasizing understanding the underlying cause of disorders, which might include genetic inheritance, related physical illnesses, infections, and chemical imbalances. Medical treatments are often pharmacological in nature, although medication is often used in conjunction with some type of psychotherapy.

Cognitive Approach

The cognitive approach to abnormal psychology focuses on how internal thoughts, perceptions, and reasoning contribute to psychological disorders. Cognitive treatments typically focus on helping the individual change their thoughts or reactions.

Cognitive therapy might also be used in conjunction with behavioral methods in a technique known as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). CBT is generally considered the “gold standard” of psychotherapy.

Topics in Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology focuses on some main topics related to psychological disorder, specifically their:

• Studying conditions
• Understanding their presentation and symptoms
• Diagnosing conditions
• Treating conditions
• Preventing mental health problems

Psychological disorders are patterns of behavioral or psychological symptoms that impact multiple areas of life. These conditions create distress for the person experiencing symptoms.

Mental health professionals use the “Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,” published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), for a variety of purposes. The manual contains a listing of psychiatric disorders, diagnostic codes, information on the prevalence of each disorder, and diagnostic criteria. Some of the categories of psychological disorders include:

• Anxiety disorders, such as social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder
• Mood disorders, such as depression and bipolar disorder
• Neurodevelopmental disorders, such as intellectual disability or autism spectrum disorder
• Neurocognitive disorders, including delirium
• Personality disorders, such as borderline personality disorder, avoidant personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
• Substance use disorders, such as alcohol use disorder and opioid use disorder

Criticisms of the Field

The field of abnormal psychology is not without criticism. In addition to debates over the use of the term “abnormal” itself, some believe that this area has a number of shortcomings.

In particular, some feel that this area stigmatizes vulnerable and oppressed people. Critics also suggest that the field of abnormal psychology tends to pathologize normal variations in human behavior.

Some also propose that the medical approach to mental illness often focuses only on biological and genetic determinants of distress rather than taking a more holistic view. It also does not account for the fact that there are major cultural differences in what is deemed normal and abnormal.

Takeaways

Abnormal psychology may focus on atypical behavior, but its focus is not to ensure that all people fit into a narrow definition of “normal.” In most cases, it is centered on identifying and treating problems that may be causing distress or impairment in some aspect of an individual’s life. By better understanding what is “abnormal,” researchers and therapists can come up with new ways to help people live healthier and more fulfilling lives.

Human sexuality is complex, diverse, and multifaceted. One topic that often generates curiosity (and confusion) is the concept of fetishes. A fetish is an inanimate object or non-sexual part of the body that arouses sexual desire.

The term fetish has become fairly mainstream. For example, foot fetishes are the most common and openly talked about. However, people’s understanding of what constitutes a fetish and when it becomes a problem has lagged behind.

Fetishes are a normal variation of human sexual expression. The truth is that a fetish is only a problem when the fixation interferes with your life or causes undue suffering to you or those around you. An example of this might be a person who is no longer sexually attracted to their partner and can only be aroused by the sight of a fetish object.

Fetishes come in all shapes and sizes, ranging from the foot fetish mentioned above to a penchant for leather, rubber, or certain aspects of BDSM practices.

However, it’s not so much the content of the fetish that should be cause for concern; rather, it’s when that fetish takes over a person’s life and affects their relationships that they are considered problematic.

Types of Fetishes

There are all sorts of objects or situations that a person might develop a fetish for, whether it’s part of a diagnosable fetish disorder or simply a personal preference that doesn’t cause any distress or harm. Fetishes often fall into a few common categories, such as:

Body Parts

• Certain body parts, such as feet (foot fetish or podophilia), navels, legs, mouth, nails, armpits, etc.
• Certain kinds of hair or body hair

Body Features or Fluids

• Body modifications such as tattoos or piercings.
• Urophilia (sexual interest in activities involving urination)
• Coprophilia or scatophilia (activities involving feces)
• Lactophilia (lactating breasts)
• Menophilia (activities involving menstrual blood)
• Mucophilia (sexual interest in sneezing)

Clothing or Materials

• Certain items of clothing such as stockings or skirts, or undergarments
• Rubber or leather
• Footwear or specific kinds of shoes or boots

Non-Sexual Objects

• Less common objects such as stethoscopes, pacifiers, or diapers
• Necrophilia or only having sexual interest in dead bodies

Fetishes vs. Kinks

It is also important to recognize that while the word fetish is sometimes used interchangeably with kink. However, the two are not the same.

Why People Have Them

Experts aren’t really sure why fetishes develop (or why specific types of fetishes form) because there hasn’t been much research exploring how they develop. Despite that, researchers do have a few different theories. Biological, cultural, emotional, and social factors may all play a role.

French psychologist Alfred Binet was the first to use the term fetish in an erotic context in 1887. At the time, it was suspected that fetishes took hold through an arousing experience with an object during childhood.

Indeed, research has shown that it is possible to condition people to become aroused by objects like boots, suggesting that a fetish is a learned process.

Some research has indicated that people who report having fetishes are more likely to use drugs and alcohol and experience lower levels of life satisfaction. However, it’s important to remember that most people with a sexual fetish are able to integrate it into their sex life and don’t experience detrimental effects, distress, or impairments in functioning.

Another study found that people with sexual fetishes are more likely to have lower self-esteem and weaker interpersonal relationships. However, the study also found that these individuals had better social adjustment and self-confidence, possibly due to acceptance within supportive communities with similar interests.

When Is a Fetish a Problem?

A sexual or erotic fetish can be defined as an extreme sexual fixation on an object or body part. The object of the fixation is called the fetish, and the person with the fetish is called a fetishist.

The DSM-5 lists three criteria for this disorder, which falls into the category of paraphilic disorders (others in this category include voyeuristic and exhibitionistic disorders).

• The first criterion: Over a six-month period, you must have experienced sexual urges that were focused on a non-genital body part or a non-living object. This must be manifested by fantasies, urges, or behaviors.
• The second criterion: The fantasies, urges, or behaviors that you are having have caused you significant distress or impaired your ability to go about your daily life.
• The third criterion: The object cannot be clothing that you use for cross dressing and it cannot be a stimulation device like a vibrator. So, feeling urges to dress in women’s clothes or to use a vibrator does not constitute a fetish.

The DSM-5 also has specifiers for the disorder, which are ways of further narrowing down the specifics of what you are experiencing. These include the following:

• Whether the arousal is to a specific body part, such as someone’s feet or hair. This is also known as partialism.
• Whether the arousal is to non-living objects such as shoes or undergarments.

On the other hand, if these criteria are not met, then a fetish can simply refer to what we mean by this in layman’s terms—that is, having a sexual interest in specific activities or objects that you find enjoyable but that don’t cause you or anyone else any distress.

Treatments for Fetisishm

When a fetish is a disorder, it can lead to illegal activity, loss of interest in usual sexual activities, and poor relationships. In these cases, treatment for the fetish is warranted to reduce reliance on the fetish and increase interest in acceptable stimuli.

Below are the typical treatments that may be used.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) methods such as aversion therapy, orgasmic reconditioning, and covert conditioning may be used for fetishes.

• In aversion therapy, thoughts of the fetish are paired with an aversive stimulus, such as an electric shock.
• During covert sensitization, a person engages in a fantasy about the fetish and then imagines some negative outcome, such as their whole family walking in while they are engaged in the fetish. However, this is only one example; the negative outcome would vary depending on what the person finds most negative and/or humiliating.
• During orgasmic reconditioning, people are asked to switch their thoughts about the fetish to something more acceptable (like their partner) just before orgasm. It’s believed that this will reinforce acceptable sexual interest.

Psychodynamic Therapy

Given the fact that there are theories that fetishes originate in some connection during childhood, it’s not surprising that some therapists may use psychodynamic techniques to work with the unconscious when unraveling fetishes.

Medication

Medications such as antiandrogens (to lower sex drive and reduce sexual fantasies) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) (to improve mood) may be used for disordered fetishes. However, some medications can have significant side effects that must be considered.

Incorporating a Fetish Into Your Relationship

Some couples may find that they want to work on making the fetish part of their relationship instead of getting rid of it altogether. For something like a foot fetish, this might mean incorporating foot massage or other enjoyable activities into your sexual relationship.

Relationship counseling or couples therapy can help couples work on improving communication about a fetish that they want to keep but manage as part of their relationship.

Takeaways

A fetish might become a problem if it crosses the line from a part-time fantasy to a full-time obsession. A common sign to watch for is being unable to become sexually interested in anything unless it involves the fetish object or situation.

If you are struggling, it’s important to reach out for help, no matter how embarrassing that may feel. In particular, if you are the spouse or partner of someone with a destructive fetish that is ruining your relationship, know that help is available.

It seems like dopamine is on everyone’s mind these days, literally and figuratively. This neurotransmitter, sometimes referred to as the brain’s “feel-good chemical,” has been the focus of everything from dopamine dressing (wearing clothes that make you feel good) to dopamine detoxes (restricting pleasurable activities to focus on healthier options) to dopamine menus (self-care activities that spark joy).

However, dopamine’s effects on mental health go beyond just boosting mood. It’s a key neurotransmitter in the brain that plays a role in many bodily functions, including regulating motivation, attention, reward, and movement.

A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that transmits signals in the body. It also acts as a hormone.

Dopamine Is a Part of Our Brain’s Reward Center

While dopamine is often referred to as the “pleasure chemical,” this is a misnomer, as dopamine doesn’t actually produce pleasure. It does, however, reinforce feelings of pleasure by connecting sensations of pleasure to certain behaviors. 

“It’s a feel-good chemical,” says Tanya J. Peterson, NCC, DAIS, a mental health educator. “It’s part of our reward center, and when our brain produces dopamine in response to what we do, we feel good and want to do more of whatever it is that’s making us feel so mentally healthy. That, in turn, leads to even more dopamine production.”

Fight-or-Flight Responses

Dopamine is also present in fight-or-flight responses. When experiencing a perceived threat, real or imagined, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is activated, triggering the release of dopamine and other catecholamines, which help in responding to stress.

Dopamine is produced at a number of different sites in the brain, says James Giordano, MD, MPhil, professor of neurology and biochemistry at Georgetown University Medical Center, including the substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area, the pituitary gland, and in pathways of the hypothalamus.

The Role of Dopamine in the Body

Dopamine has a direct impact on many neurological, cognitive, and behavioral functions within the body, says Dr. Giordano, including:

• Arousal
• Movement
• Regulation of certain hormones and glands
• Reinforcement and reward
• Thoughts and emotions

Dopamine affects everything from the way we think and move to the way we remember and behave. However, everyone experiences dopamine differently.

How You Might Feel With Low Dopamine Levels

With dopamine deficiency, you could experience any number of symptoms, such as:

• Anxiety
• Constipation
• Difficulty sleeping
• Hallucinations
• Loss of balance
• Low energy
• Low sex drive
• Mood swings
• Muscle cramps
• Tremors
• Weight change

A lack of dopamine might feel like being forgetful, anxious, inattentive, withdrawn, and emotionally numb. You might also have stomach issues and coordination problems.

How You Might Feel With High Dopamine Levels

While low dopamine can create issues, excessive amounts can sometimes be too much of a good thing. High dopamine levels can lead to some positive feelings, like having lots of energy, but it can also have negative effects. If your dopamine levels are too high, you might feel:

• Aggressive
• Energized
• Euphoric
• Impulsive
• Interested in sex
• Unable to sleep

Dopamine’s Role in Mental Health 

When you have a dopamine disorder, you may experience a decline in neurocognitive functions, which relates to your memory, attention, and problem-solving abilities.

Like the neurotransmitter serotonin, which helps regulate mood, dopamine is involved in many psychological illnesses. Abnormally functioning dopamine receptors play a role in some health and mental health disorders. 

Parkinson’s Disease

Decreased levels of dopamine can occur in certain neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease, wherein the nerve cells responsible for producing and releasing dopamine are dying, Dr. Giordano explains.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Studies have shown that people with ADHD often experience dopamine disruptions, which may impact traits like inattention and impulsivity. Individuals with ADHD may experience reward and motivation deficits, making them unable to modify their behavior to adapt to changing reward conditions.

Schizophrenia 

Schizophrenia is associated with changes in brain dopamine receptors, as well as dopamine signaling pathways. The antipsychotic drugs that are often used to treat schizophrenia work by acting as dopamine antagonists, which can help some people better manage their symptoms. 

Substance Use Disorder and Addiction

Dopamine-triggered conditioned responses that result from certain behaviors, such as drinking alcohol, smoking, or gambling, can lead to addiction. Why some people struggle with addiction more than others could be due to preexisting differences in dopamine circuits.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

MDD is one of the most common mental health disorders and dopamine deficiency can lead to anhedonia, the inability to feel pleasure, which is often a symptom of MDD.

‘Decreased dopamine function can occur following stress and in certain types of depressive disorders,’ says Dr. Giordano. Decreased effectiveness in dopamine metabolism and signaling can produce signs and symptoms such as:

• Loss of energy
• Diminished appetite
• Cravings for fatty and/or sweet foods
• Decreased desire for—and enjoyment of—various activities
• Changes in libido

In such cases, Dr. Giordano explains, people may be treated with antidepressant drugs, which can prolong the effect of available dopamine at its receptor sites, and in this way, amplify dopamine-mediated effects to reduce such signs and symptoms. 

Medications That Affect Dopamine Levels

Certain medications can be used to help balance dopamine levels in the brain. The type of medication that is prescribed might elevate or inhibit dopamine action depending on the nature of the condition it is treating.

Dopamine Agonists

Dopamine agonists are medications that mimic dopamine and activate dopamine receptors. Such medications may treat Parkinson’s disease, depression, ADHD, low sex drive, hyperprolactinemia, and restless legs syndrome.

Examples of dopamine agonists include:

• Dostinex (cabergoline)
• Miraprex (pramipexole)
• Requip (ropinirole)

Dopamine Antagonists

Dopamine antagonists are drugs that bind to dopamine receptors to block the action of dopamine in the brain. Such medications may be used to treat schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. They can also treat nausea and vomiting.

Examples of dopamine antagonists include:

• Abilify (aripiprazole)
• Geodon (ziprasidone)
• Reglan (metoclopramide)
• Risperdal (risperidone)
• Zyprexa (olanzapine)

Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors

Dopamine reuptake inhibitors are drugs that block dopamine from being reabsorbed by nerve cells. Because of this, it can increase dopamine levels in the brain. Such medications may treat depression, binge eating disorder, and narcolepsy. These drugs may also be used to help people overcome addictions.

Examples of dopamine reuptake inhibitors:

• Cogentin (benztropine)
• Provigil (modafinil)
• Wellbutrin (bupropion)

Natural Ways to Balance Dopamine Levels 

Dopamine levels are difficult to monitor since they occur in the brain, but there are ways to balance your dopamine levels without medication. The best way to balance your dopamine levels is to focus on healthy habits. 

If you’re overindulging in certain dopamine-producing activities like sex, technology, or gambling, you’ll want to take intentional breaks, but if you’re having trouble concentrating, feeling unmotivated or tired, then you’ll want to take steps to try to increase your dopamine production. 

Consume Nutritious Foods

“The nutrients in certain foods travel to the brain and contribute to dopamine production,” says Peterson. Eating lots of fruits and vegetables, especially bananas, can increase dopamine production. 

Peterson also recommends protein, including lean meats, fish, beans, and plant-based protein, as well as foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids like salmon, mackerel, oysters, ground flaxseeds, chia seeds, and walnuts. 

Research has shown that consuming the amino acid tyrosine can also increase dopamine availability. Tyrosine can be found in a number of dietary sources, including:

• Almonds
• Avocados
• Bananas
• Cheese
• Chicken
• Fish
• Milk
• Soy products
• Turkey
• Yogurt

Exercise Regularly 

Taking a short walk, practicing yoga, dancing in your kitchen, or doing an at-home workout can help produce healthy dopamine levels. Exercising also improves sleep habits, which also supports balanced dopamine levels. 

“Do any physical activity that you enjoy. Forcing yourself to do something you hate just for the sake of exercise may bring physical benefits, but for the full mental health benefit associated with dopamine in particular, choose movement that you find pleasurable,” says Peterson.

Celebrate the Small Moments

“Doing something small that you enjoy and purposefully connecting that act to an accomplishment or something wonderful you notice tells your brain that something great is going on and that you’re driving it,” says Peterson. 

This could include something as simple as noticing flowers in the garden, listening to your favorite song, smelling coffee beans, or blowing bubbles. This will kick up dopamine production, Peterson explains, and you’ll get a mental health boost that lasts. 

Takeaways

If you’re concerned about your dopamine levels, speak to your primary care doctor. Because dopamine plays such an integral role in the body and brain, it’s important to address the imbalance. Just know that many people experience imbalanced dopamine levels, but these can be easily adjusted.