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While everyone questions themself from time to time, you may be having an identity crisis if you are going through a big change or stressful time and internal questions regarding your sense of self begin to interfere with your daily life. You might also notice that you feel more irritable, unmotivated, or empty. Depending on the severity of your feelings and symptoms, there are several ways to deal with an identity crisis including professional treatment and social support.

The concept originates in the work of developmental psychologist Erik Erikson, who believed that the formation of identity was one of the most important conflicts that people face.

According to Erikson, an identity crisis is a time of intensive analysis and exploration of different ways of looking at oneself. Erikson noted that developing a sense of identity is important during the teenage years, though the formation and growth of identity is not confined to adolescence. Instead, identity shifts and changes throughout life as people confront new challenges and tackle different experiences. Thus, an identity crisis can occur at any age.

Symptoms of an Identity Crisis

A person going through an identity crisis may be preoccupied with certain questions:

• What am I passionate about?
• What are my spiritual beliefs?
• What are my values?
• What is my role in society or purpose in life?
• Who am I? (This question may be in general or in regard to relationships, age, or career.)

It is important to be aware that having negative feelings about yourself or your life can be an indicator of a vulnerability for depression. If you are also experiencing depression symptoms such as low mood, loss of interest, fatigue, and irritability, you should talk to a healthcare provider.

How Identity Develops

Erikson believed that identity was formed by experimenting with different behaviors and roles, as well as through social interactions. Researcher James Marcia expanded upon Erikson’s theory by suggesting that the balance between identity and confusion lies in making a commitment to an identity.

Marcia developed an interview method to measure identity. It looks at three different areas of functioning: occupational role, beliefs and values, and sexuality. He also identified four different identity statuses that people move through as they develop their identity:

• Foreclosure is when a person has made a commitment without attempting identity exploration.
• Achievement occurs when an individual has gone through an exploration of different identities and made a commitment to one.
• Diffusion occurs when there is neither an identity crisis nor commitment. Those with a status of identity diffusion tend to feel out of place in the world and don’t pursue a sense of identity.
• Moratorium is the status of a person who is actively involved in exploring different identities but has not made a commitment.

Marcia argued that identity crises help people move from one status to another; however, people don’t necessarily experience each of the statuses above.

Causes of an Identity Crisis

In Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development, the emergence of an identity crisis occurs during the teenage years in which people struggle with feelings of identity versus role confusion.

People tend to experience an identity crisis at various points in life, particularly at points of great change, including:

Research also suggests that there are a number of factors that can influence whether a person experiences what is often referred to as a midlife crisis. Such factors include health issues, stress, and social support.

Having a mental health condition such as depression, bipolar disorder, and borderline personality disorder may also increase the likelihood of experiencing an identity crisis.

Diagnosing Identity Issues

It is important to note that an identity crisis is not an actual psychological diagnosis. However, identity is a key criterion for diagnosing personality disorders, and it is possible to be diagnosed with an identity issue or disorder.

For example, dissociative identity disorder is when someone has two or more distinct identities or personalities. It is diagnosed if, in addition to these distinct identities, the person also has ongoing memory gaps and their symptoms cause distress in some areas of life.

An identity disturbance, which is a criterion for borderline personality disorder, occurs when there is “uncertainty about several issues relating to identity.” This can include having uncertainty about one’s self-image, gender identity, values, and long-term goals.

Treatment for an Identity Crisis

If an identity crisis is creating significant distress and interfering with your ability to function normally, a doctor or mental health professional can help. Talk to them about how you’re feeling and the changes or stress you’re experiencing in your life.

Depending on the severity of your identity issues and the effects they are creating, there are several treatment options.

Psychotherapy

Therapy can be helpful for addressing some of the underlying issues that might be contributing to your identity crisis. One approach known as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) works to address the negative thoughts and behaviors that may cause issues with your view of yourself.

Group Therapy

Some studies have found group therapy to be helpful for treating identity crises, especially in adolescents. One such study reported positive results after engaging in group narrative therapy, which focuses on helping people find their voice through the stories they tell themselves.

Another noted similar findings after group-based reality therapy, which reinforces the power of making good choices.

Medication

If your symptoms are accompanied by anxiety or depression, your doctor may also suggest or prescribe medications (anti-anxiety or antidepressant medicines) to help with those conditions. 

Coping With an Identity Crisis

In many cases, there are steps you can take to help work through an identity crisis on your own. Some things that may be helpful as you confront questions about your identity include:

• Acknowledge and accept your feelings. Seek to identify and understand the feelings you have about your identity, then acknowledge and accept them. Tell yourself that it is okay to feel the way you do, extending the same grace to yourself as you would a friend.
• Explore your beliefs and interests. When you are questioning your sense of self, it can be helpful to look inward and think about the things you are passionate about. What are you interested in? Are there things that you no longer like? Asking questions and exploring new hobbies and interests can be a helpful way to get to know yourself better.
• Consider your goals. Spend some time thinking about your goals in life. What do you want to accomplish? What types of things bring you the most joy and happiness? An identity crisis might be a sign that some need is not currently being fulfilled, so finding ways to satisfy that need can bring a greater sense of fulfillment to your life.
• Get support. Having friends and family to lean on can help. Strong social support is an important part of mental well-being and can also be a way to gain the feedback and encouragement you need to feel comfortable with your identity. Friends, family members, social clubs, religious groups, team sports groups, and support groups can all be great places to find the support that you need.

There’s good reason to overcome an identity crisis. Researchers have found that those who have made a strong commitment to an identity tend to be happier and healthier than those who have not.

Exploring different aspects of yourself in the different areas of life, including your role at work, within the family, and in romantic relationships, can help strengthen your personal identity. Consider looking within to figure out the qualities and characteristics that define you and make you feel grounded and happy, as well as your values, interests, passions, and hobbies. 

Agoraphobia is sometimes mistaken as a fear of leaving the house, but it is more complex. Agoraphobia is an anxiety disorder that involves an extreme and irrational fear of being unable to escape a difficult or embarrassing situation. People fear they will experience panic or other incapacitating symptoms when trapped in a public and inescapable setting.

The disorder is marked by anxiety that causes people to avoid situations where they might feel panicked, trapped, helpless, or embarrassed. It can occur on its own or alongside another mental health condition, such as panic disorder.

This fear often leads to persistent avoidance behaviors, in which the person begins to stay away from the places and situations in which they fear panic may occur. For example, a person with agoraphobia may avoid driving a car, leaving the comfort of home, shopping in a mall, traveling by airplane, or simply being in a crowded area.

Symptoms of Agoraphobia

Symptoms of agoraphobia may include:

• Being afraid of leaving home
• Being afraid of open spaces, bridges, or shopping centers
• Fear of enclosed spaces or buildings
• Fear of leaving home or being in social situations alone
• Fear of losing control in a public place
• Fear of places where escape might be difficult
• Fear of public transportation

These situations almost always trigger an anxiety response that is out of proportion to the actual danger presented by the situation.

Panic attacks often precede the onset of agoraphobia. When forced to endure a feared situation, a person may experience a panic attack that causes symptoms including:

• Chest pain
• Chills
• Diarrhea
• Dizziness
• Feelings of choking
• Feelings of unreality
• Nausea
• Numbness
• Rapid heartbeat
• Shortness of breath
• Sweating
• Trembling

Types of Agoraphobia

Although many people with agoraphobia will also have panic disorder, it is possible to be diagnosed with agoraphobia without having a history of panic disorder. When this occurs, the person still has a fear of being stuck in a situation where escape would be difficult or humiliating. However, they generally do not fear having full-blown panic attacks.

Rather, they may be afraid of having some other type of distressing anxiety symptom or other intense physical issues, such as vomiting or having a severe migraine. For instance, the person may be afraid that they will lose control of their bladder in public or faint without any help being available.

Approximately one-third to half of those diagnosed with panic disorder will also develop agoraphobia. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) reports that agoraphobia occurs to approximately 0.9% of adults in the U.S. population in any given year. This condition typically develops in adulthood, though it can emerge earlier in adolescence.

Causes of Agoraphobia

The exact causes of agoraphobia are not known, but there are a number of risk factors that may increase your risk of developing this condition. These include:

• Having another anxiety disorder, such as generalized anxiety disorder or social anxiety disorder
• Another phobia
• A family history of agoraphobia
• A history of abuse or trauma
• Brain chemistry
• Low self-esteem or depression

Learned associations can also play a role in the development of agoraphobia. Experiencing a panic attack in a certain situation or setting can lead to a fear that such a reaction will occur again in the future.

In some cases, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can contribute to the development of agoraphobia. PTSD can occur following a traumatic event and lead to hypervigilance and anxiety symptoms, which can lead to the onset of agoraphobia.

Extended periods of isolation may increase the risk of developing agoraphobia. For example, fear caused by the COVID-19 pandemic combined with isolation caused by social distancing and quarantines has increased anxiety for many Americans. Mental health experts believe that the repercussions of these events may have a lasting effect on the well-being of adults and children for years to come.

Diagnosis of Agoraphobia

To receive a diagnosis of agoraphobia, a healthcare provider will assess your symptoms and check for any underlying medical conditions that might be causing those symptoms. You may be asked about your medical history and you will be asked about the nature, duration, and severity of your anxiety symptoms.

In order to be diagnosed with agoraphobia, you must:

• Have marked fear in at least two different situations, such as open spaces, crowded areas, or public transportation
• Have the agoraphobic situation almost always provoke an anxiety response
• Have fear that is out of proportion to the threat
• Exhibit avoidance behaviors or distress that disrupts your normal routines, work, school, and relationships
• Experience these symptoms for at least six months

The symptoms must also not be better explained by another medical or mental condition.

Treatment for Agoraphobia

If a person does develop agoraphobia, symptoms typically begin to occur within the first year that the person starts having recurring and persistent panic attacks. Agoraphobia can get worse if left untreated.

For the best outcomes in managing agoraphobia and panic symptoms, it is important to seek treatment as soon as symptoms arise. Treatment options typically include a combination of both medication and psychotherapy.

Psychotherapy

The therapeutic approach may include some systematic desensitization, in which the person gradually confronts avoided situations with the support and guidance of their therapist.

Some research has shown that integrating cognitive-behavioral therapy and exposure therapy with psychodynamic treatment has been beneficial in agoraphobia. Many times, the person will fare better in facing their fears if accompanied by a trusted friend.

Medications

Medications may also be prescribed to help manage certain symptoms of agoraphobia. These medications include:

• Antidepressants, including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as Prozac (fluoxetine) and Zoloft (sertraline); selective serotonin-norepinephrine inhibitors (SNRIs) such as Effexor (venlafaxine); and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) such as Tofranil (imipramine) and Anafranil (clomipramine)
• Anti-anxiety medications, such as Klonopin (clonazepam) and Xanax (alprazolam)

Coping With Agoraphobia

In addition to seeking help from a mental health professional, there are also lifestyle changes that can help you to better manage the symptoms of agoraphobia. These include:

Through the support of family and friends and professional help, a person with agoraphobia can manage their condition. With medication and psychotherapy, a person with agoraphobia can expect to eventually experience fewer panic attacks, fewer avoidance behaviors, and a return to a more independent and active life.

A life coach can help people set and achieve goals, identify areas of their lives that need changing, support them in those changes, and stand by them as they navigate challenges and successes. And with a life coach certification program, you can be trained to do all this while meeting a certain standard of care. The best way to get certified is to participate in a program accredited by the International Coaching Federation (ICF), one of the industry’s only recognized authorities. “You also want to determine if the program you’re considering offers different levels of certification and what is involved with getting additional coaching education and credentialing,” says Sherri Gordon, CLC. The right program can help you launch your career and find clients.

I’m a licensed social worker and mental health professional, and I’ve researched and reviewed 30 different life coach certification programs. These seven certification options are the ones I would recommend if a loved one wanted to become a life coach—or was interested in hiring one.

Our Favorite Certification Programs

The Difference Between Coaching and Therapy

If you’re looking for or want to become a therapist, it’s important to note that life coaches and therapists are not the same and life coaching should not be used to substitute mental health therapy. Life coaching can, however, complement therapy and is a good resource for individuals who do not have any mental health conditions or concerns.

According to Gordon, “a life coach helps you set and achieve goals important to you. They also can assist with problem-solving, provide accountability, and help with skill building. A therapist, on the other hand, addresses mental health conditions like anxiety and depression, helps you understand and manage emotions, and discusses issues that are bothering you. Without proper training, a life coach cannot provide therapy or mental health advice and should always refer a client with signs of depression and anxiety to a therapist.” If you’re looking for a therapist, we’ve tested and reviewed the best online therapy services.

Negative reinforcement strengthens a response or behavior by stopping, removing, or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive stimulus. B. F. Skinner first described the term in his theory of operant conditioning.

Rather than delivering an aversive stimulus (punishment) or a reward (positive reinforcement), negative reinforcement works by taking away something that the individual finds undesirable. This removal reinforces the behavior that proceeds it, making it more likely that the response will occur again in the future.

This article discusses how negative reinforcement works, how it compares to other behavioral learning methods, and how effective it can be in the learning process.

How Does Negative Reinforcment Work?

Negative reinforcement works to strengthen certain behaviors by removing some type of aversive outcome. As a form of reinforcement, it strengthens the behavior that precedes it. In the case of negative reinforcement, it is the action of removing the undesirable outcome or stimulus that serves as the reward for performing the behavior. 

Aversive stimuli tend to involve some type of discomfort, either physical or psychological. Behaviors are negatively reinforced when they allow you to escape from aversive stimuli that are already present or allow you to completely avoid the aversive stimuli before they happen.

Deciding to take an antacid before you indulge in a spicy meal is an example of negative reinforcement. You engage in an action in order to avoid a negative result.

There are two different types of negative reinforcement: example and avoidance learning. Escape learning involves being able to escape an undesirable stimulus, while avoidance learning involves being able to prevent experiencing the aversive stimulus altogether.

Examples of Negative Reinforcement

Looking at some real-world examples can be a great way to get a better idea about what negative reinforcement is and how it works. Consider the following situations:

• Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather on sunscreen (the behavior) to avoid getting sunburned (removal of the aversive stimulus).
• You decide to clean up your mess in the kitchen (the behavior) to avoid getting into a fight with your roommate (removal of the aversive stimulus).
• On Monday morning, you leave the house early (the behavior) to avoid getting stuck in traffic and being late for work (removal of an aversive stimulus).
• At dinner time, a child pouts and refuses to eat her vegetables for dinner. Her parents quickly take the offending veggies away. Since the behavior (pouting) led to the removal of the aversive stimulus (the veggies), this is an example of negative reinforcement.

Can you identify the negative reinforcer in each of these examples? Sunburn, a fight with your roommate, being late for work, and having to eat vegetables are all negative outcomes that were avoided by performing a specific behavior. By eliminating these undesirable outcomes, preventive behaviors become more likely to occur again in the future.

Negative vs. Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is a type of reinforcement that involves giving someone the desired reward in response to a behavior. This might involve offering praise, money, or other incentives.

Both positive and negative reinforcement work to increase the likelihood that a behavior will occur again in the future. You can distinguish between the two by noticing whether something is being taken away or added to the situation. If something desirable is being added, then it is positive reinforcement. If something aversive is being taken away, then it is negative reinforcement.

Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment

One mistake that people often make is confusing negative reinforcement with punishment. Remember, however, that negative reinforcement involves the removal of a negative condition to strengthen a behavior.

Consider the following example and determine whether you think it is an example of negative reinforcement or punishment:

Luke is supposed to clean his room every Saturday morning. Last weekend, he went out to play with his friend without cleaning his room. As a result, his father made him spend the rest of the weekend doing other chores like cleaning out the garage, mowing the lawn, and weeding the garden, in addition to cleaning his room.

If you said that this was an example of punishment, then you are correct. Because Luke didn’t clean his room, his father punished him by making him do extra chores.

If you are trying to distinguish between negative reinforcement or punishment, consider whether something is being added or taken away from a situation.

Uses for Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement can be utilized in a variety of ways in many different settings. A few examples include:

Parenting

Parents can use negative reinforcement to encourage positive behaviors in various ways. For example, a parent might eliminate a chore that their child is supposed to do if they finish all of the other tasks on their list. Another example is giving children more time to play on their tablets if they finish all of their homework first.

Education

One example of negative reinforcement in the classroom is canceling a task that students dislike (such as a pop quiz) if they complete all their assigned work on time.

Psychotherapy

Negative reinforcement is often utilized as a part of addiction treatment and behavioral therapy. People who have been convicted of drug-related offenses, for example, might be able to have their sentences reduced if they participate in drug and alcohol treatment.

In behavioral therapy, negative reinforcement can help strengthen positive behaviors. As people develop skills, they may find that practicing new coping skills eliminates unpleasant outcomes, which can help further reinforce new behaviors.

Effectiveness

Negative reinforcement can be an effective way to strengthen the desired behavior. However, it is most effective when reinforcers are presented immediately following a behavior. When a long period elapses between the behavior and the reinforcer, the response is likely to be weaker.

In some cases, behaviors that occur in the intervening time between the initial action and the reinforcer are may also be inadvertently strengthened as well.

Some experts believe that negative reinforcement should be used sparingly in classroom settings, while positive reinforcement should be emphasized.

Benefits of Negative Reinforcement

While the name of this type of reinforcement often leads people to think that it is a “negative” type of reinforcement, negative reinforcement can have several benefits that can make it a valuable tool in the learning process. Potential advantages include:

• It can increase desirable behaviors: Because it involves the removal of an undesirable stimulus, it can help strengthen more positive behaviors.
• It can lead to lasting changes: When applied correctly, negative reinforcement can contribute to long-lasting changes in behavior.
• It can work quickly: The removal of an aversive stimulus can lead to relatively quick behavior change.

Potential Pitfalls of Negative Reinforcement

While negative reinforcement can be a helpful learning tool, it can have some potential downsides. 

• It can be misinterpreted: When a negative stimulus is removed, usually without explanation, it can sometimes lead to problems with communication. It can potentially create misunderstandings in relationships where people misread the other person’s intentions.
• Poor timing can render it ineffective: The schedule of reinforcement that is used can have an important impact not only how quickly a behavior is learned, but also on the strength of the response. If the delivery of negative reinforcement is not timed correctly, it can be less effective. A large gap between the behavior and the removal of an aversive stimulus means that people will be less likely to form a connection between the action and its consequences.

Psychoanalysis is a method of therapy in which the patient talks about experiences, early childhood, and dreams. It refers to both a theory and a type of therapy based on the belief that all people possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories.

According to the American Psychoanalytic Association (APA), psychoanalysis can help people understand themselves by exploring their unrecognized impulses hidden in the unconscious.

In psychotherapy, people are able to feel safe as they explore feelings, desires, memories, and stressors that can lead to psychological difficulties. Research has demonstrated that the self-examination utilized in the psychoanalytic process can contribute to long-term emotional growth.

Psychoanalysis Theories

Psychoanalysis is based on Freud’s theory that people can experience catharsis and gain insight into their state of mind by bringing the content of the unconscious into conscious awareness. Through this process, a person can find relief from psychological distress.

Psychoanalysis also suggests that:

• A person’s behavior is influenced by their unconscious drives.
• Emotional and psychological problems such as depression and anxiety are often rooted in conflicts between the conscious and unconscious mind.
• Personality development is heavily influenced by the events of early childhood (Freud suggested that personality was largely set in stone by the age of five).
• People use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from information contained in the unconscious.

Skilled analysts can help a person bring certain aspects of their unconscious mind into their conscious awareness by using psychoanalytic strategies such as dream analysis and free association.

History of Psychoanalysis

Many of Freud’s observations and theories were based on clinical cases and case studies. This made his findings difficult to generalize to the larger population. Still, Freud’s theories changed how we think about the human mind and behavior and left a lasting mark on psychology and culture.

Today, psychoanalysis encompasses:

• Applied psychoanalysis (which applies psychoanalytic principles to the study of art, literature, and real-world settings and situations)
• Neuro-psychoanalysis (which applies neuroscience to psychoanalytic topics such as dreams and repression)
• Psychoanalytic therapy

Important Milestones

• 1856 – Sigmund Freud was born
• 1882 – Josef Breuer described the case of Anna O to Freud
• 1886 – Freud first began providing therapy
• 1895 – Anna Freud was born
• 1900 – Sigmund Freud published his book The Interpretation of Dreams
• 1896 – Sigmund Freud first coined the term psychoanalysis
• 1908 – The Vienna Psychoanalytic Society was formed and the first international meeting of psychoanalysts was held
• 1909 – Freud made his first and only trip to the United States
• 1910 – The International Psychoanalytic Association was formed
• 1913 – Jung broke from Freud and psychoanalysis
• 1938 – The Vienna Psychoanalytic Society was dissolved
• 1939 – Sigmund Freud died in London following a long battle with oral cancer

Psychoanalysis Theorists

Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic approach to psychology. Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, the ego, and the superego.

Other thinkers—including his own daughter, Anna Freud—also left a significant mark on the field. Among the most prominent names in psychoanalysis were Erik Erikson, Erich Fromm, and Carl Jung

Erik Erikson expanded on Freud’s theories and stressed the importance of lifelong growth. Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory of personality remains influential today in our understanding of human development.

Key Ideas

Psychoanalysis also involves a number of different terms and ideas related to the mind, personality, and treatment.

Case Studies

A case study is defined as an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. Some of Freud’s most famous case studies include Dora, Little Hans, and Anna O. These cases had a powerful influence on the development of his psychoanalytic theory.

Although the hope is that the insights gained from a single case study could apply to others, it is difficult to generalize the results, because case studies tend to be highly subjective. In some instances, the factors involved in a particular case are so individualized that they may not apply to others.

The Conscious and Unconscious Mind

The unconscious mind includes all of the things that are outside of our conscious awareness, such as early childhood memories, secret desires, and hidden drives. According to Freud, the unconscious contains things that we might consider to be unpleasant or even socially unacceptable. We bury these things in our unconscious because they might bring us pain or conflict.

While these thoughts, memories, and urges are outside of our awareness, they still influence how we think and behave. In some cases, the things that are outside of our awareness can influence behavior in negative ways and lead to psychological distress. 

The conscious mind, on the other hand, includes everything that is inside of our awareness. The contents of the conscious mind are the things we are aware of or can easily bring into awareness.

The Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud believed that an individual’s personality had three components: the id, the ego, and the superego.

Id

The first of the key elements of personality to emerge is known as the id. The id contains all of the unconscious, basic, and primal urges.

Ego

The second aspect of personality to emerge is known as the ego. This is the part of the personality that must deal with the demands of reality. It helps control the urges of the id and makes us behave in ways that are both realistic and acceptable.

Rather than engaging in behaviors that are designed to satisfy our desires and needs, the ego forces us to fulfill our needs in ways that are socially acceptable and realistic. In addition to controlling the demands of the id, the ego also helps strike a balance between our basic urges, our ideals, and reality.

Superego

The superego is the final aspect of personality to emerge, and it contains our ideals and values. The values and beliefs that our parents and society instill in us are the guiding force of the superego and it strives to make us behave according to these morals.

The Ego’s Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are strategies that the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety. These defensive tools act as a safeguard to keep unpleasant or distressing aspects of the unconscious from entering our awareness. When something is experienced as overwhelming or even inappropriate, defense mechanisms keep the information from entering our consciousness, which minimizes our distress.

Strengths and Weaknesses

Over the course of the early 20th century, the influence of psychoanalysis grew. However, it was not without critics. Despite its flaws, psychoanalysis continued to play a key role in the development of psychology. It influenced our approach to treating mental health conditions and continues to exert an influence on psychology today. 

Strengths

• Even though most psychodynamic theories did not rely on experimental research, the methods and theories of psychoanalytic thinking contributed to the development of experimental psychology.
• Many of the theories of personality developed by psychodynamic thinkers, such as Erikson’s theory of psychosocial stages and Freud’s psychosexual stage theory, continue to influence the field today.
• Psychoanalysis opened up a new view on mental illness, particularly that talking through problems with a psychoanalytic professional could help alleviate a person’s psychological distress. 

Weaknesses

• Freud’s theories overemphasized the unconscious mind, sex, aggression, and childhood experiences.
• Many of the concepts proposed by psychoanalytic theorists are difficult to measure and quantify.
• Most of Freud’s ideas were based on case studies and clinical observations rather than empirical, scientific research.

Support and Criticism

Many of the criticisms of psychodynamic approaches are based on the earlier Freudian approaches to treatment. Many people are skeptical of psychoanalysis because the evidence supporting its effectiveness has often been viewed as weak. One of the critics’ main arguments is that it’s not as effective as other treatments.

More recently, however, research has demonstrated that this approach can have a number of benefits. One systematic review of previous studies concluded that psychoanalytic therapy was an effective treatment that resulted in the reduction of symptoms and long-term changes that persisted for years after treatment ended.

A 2015 review found that psychodynamic therapy could be effective in the treatment of a number of conditions include:

• Depression
• Eating disorders
• Somatic disorders
• Some anxiety disorders

Another critique is that psychoanalysis often requires an investment of time, money, and effort. Psychoanalysis is also generally a long-term proposition. In the world we live in today, people are usually seeking fast results and approaches that yield an effect in days, weeks, or months. Psychoanalytic therapy typically involves a client and therapist exploring issues over a period of years.

Past and Present

Many of Freud’s ideas have fallen out of favor in psychology, but that certainly does not mean that his work is without merit. Research also supports at least some of Freud’s original ideas.

His approach to therapy (specifically, the suggestion that mental illness was treatable and that talking about problems could bring relief) was a revolutionary concept that changed how we approach the treatment of mental illness.

“Reviews of neuroscientific work confirm that many of Freud’s original observations, not least the pervasive influence of non-conscious processes and the organizing function of emotions for thinking, have found confirmation in laboratory studies,” explained Peter Fonagy in an article published in World Psychiatry.

Sigmund Freud was also very much a product of his time. Although he was known for his audacious theories (which were considered especially shocking in the Victorian period), his view of the world was colored by the time in which he lived. If Freud were alive today, his ideas might be regarded very differently—and his own work would likely take a different direction.

Some have suggested that if Freud were alive today, he would likely be interested in topics related to brain functioning. Prior to the development of psychoanalysis, Freud’s interests had centered on developing a neural model of behavior. Researchers today also suggest that the neurobiological underpinnings of psychoanalysis are worth further exploration.

Psychoanalysis as Freud conceived it might be on the decline, but that does not mean that the psychodynamic perspective has disappeared or that it will be going anywhere soon.

Psychoanalysis Today

If you ask someone what comes to mind when they think of psychology, Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis are likely to be common responses. There is no question that psychoanalysis—both as a therapeutic approach and theoretical outlook—has left its mark on psychology.

Many contemporary psychologists view psychoanalysis with skepticism. Some even feel derision toward Freud’s school of thought. In a world of psychology where cognitive processes, neuroscience, and biopsychology dominate, is there still room for psychoanalysis?

In general, there is a perceived decline in traditional psychoanalysis. A report published by the APsaA in 2008 found that psychology departments typically treat psychoanalysis as a purely historical artifact, while subjects such as art, literature, history, and other humanities were more likely to teach psychoanalysis as an ongoing and relevant topic.

The Future of Psychoanalysis

There are a few things that psychoanalysis as a field can do to ensure its continued relevance in the world of psychology. Some things that can help improve the legitimacy and relevance of psychoanalytic methods include:

• Place a greater emphasis on scientific research and empirical evidence.
• Explore evidence-based treatments in greater depth.
• Improve data-gathering methods.
• Give greater consideration to other possible explanations for behavior.
• Collaborate actively with other mental health professionals.

Some current efforts to revitalize psychoanalysis focus on psychoanalytic concepts that are more evidence-based (such as attachment theory) or on connecting Freud’s idea of the unconscious to modern neuroscience.

Everyone experiences grief at some point. Whether you’re dealing with the death of a loved one or a difficult change in your life, talking to someone can help. I’m a licensed social worker and former therapist, so I understand just how important it is to work through your grief so that you can continue to live your life after loss. That’s why I’ve compiled a comprehensive list of online grief counseling services and resources. Whether you’re looking for a therapist who can help you process your grief or a group of peers who have experienced the same type of loss, the companies on this list can help you work through whatever you’re feeling to get you back on your feet.

Compare Top Picks

Compare Top Picks

Most Flexible BetterHelp	Most Flexible BetterHelp	View on betterhelp		See Retailer		$70-$100 per week, billed as a monthly subscription		No		Individual therapy		Video, phone, messaging	Full Review
Best with Insurance Thriveworks	Best with Insurance Thriveworks	View on thriveworks		See Retailer		$5/month membership fee, $20 to be connected to a Grief Buddy		No		Support groups, peer-to-peer support		Video, phone, messaging, in-person	Full Review
Most Affordable E-Therapy Cafe	Most Affordable E-Therapy Cafe	View on e-therapycafe		See Retailer		$350 for therapy assessment, $200 per therapy session		Yes, 9 plans		Child therapy, teen therapy, adult therapy, family therapy, parent coaching, psychiatry/medication management		Video	Full Review
Best for Children and Teens Little Otter	Best for Children and Teens Little Otter	View on littleotterhealth		See Retailer		$160-$240 for intake sessions, $135-$195 for follow-ups		Yes		Individual therapy, couples therapy, child therapy, teen therapy, family therapy, psychiatry/medication management		Video, phone, in-person	Full Review
Best for Peer Support Grief in Common	Best for Peer Support Grief in Common	View on griefincommon		See Retailer		$55-$65 per session, subscriptions available for bundles of sessions		No		Individual therapy, couples therapy, coaching		Video, phone, messaging, email	Full Review
Best for Loss of a Child The Compassionate Friends	Best for Loss of a Child The Compassionate Friends	View on compassionatefriends		See Retailer		Free		N/A		Support groups		Live chat, in-person	Full Review
Best for Young Adults The Dinner Party	Best for Young Adults The Dinner Party	View on thedinnerparty		See Retailer		$15-$27 per group, $0.99 per month or $9.99 per year for live chat, $75-$97 for coaching		No		Support groups, one-on-one grief coaching, live chat room		Video, live chat	Full Review