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Dualism is a philosophical concept that concludes that the mind is separate from the body, and therefore mental phenomena are not physical in nature and vice versa. Dualism can trace its roots back to ancient Greece and philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, who grappled with the relationship between the mind and the body, as well as early Hindu philosophy.

While various schools of thought emerged over the centuries, the clearest articulation of a dualistic view was proposed in the 17^th century by philosopher Rene Descartes, who said that the mind and body are separate, with the mind being the non-physical seat of consciousness and the brain being the “physical seat of intelligence.”

In this article, we’ll look at kinds of dualism, arguments for and against the concept This will be followed by an overview of dualism in different fields and contemporary perspectives on dualism.

Types of Dualism

There are several kinds of dualism. Here are some of the most popular.

Substance Dualism

Substance dualism, also known as cartesian dualism, argues that the mind and the body are fundamentally different. According to Dr. Brian Tierney, the Somatic Doctor, a licensed psychologist, “This type of dualism considers that the mind and the body are composed of… different substances”—an immaterial mind that has mental properties and a material body that has physical properties.

Rene Descartes was a key proponent of this view. He believed that the mind and the body could exist without one another, but the body without the mind could not think. This kind of dualism is compatible with many theologies that claim that people’s immortal souls are in a different plane of existence from that of the physical plane.

Substance dualism has four main theories championed by different philosophers:

• Interactionism, which says that material causes produce mental effects. The opposite is also true. Descartes believed, incorrectly, that the pineal gland was the reason for the interaction between the mind and body.
• Occasionalism, which says that the basis of the interaction between the material and immaterial cannot be material. Instead, each instance of these individual interactions is caused by God. The 17^th century French philosopher Nicholas Malebranche was a proponent of this kind of dualism.
• Parallelism, which was championed by the Age of Reason German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz, states that while mental causes only have mental effects and physical causes only have physical effects, God makes it seem as if mental and physical events are caused by one another.
• Epiphenomenalism, which asserts that physical causes can cause either physical events or mental events but mental causes can’t cause anything because they’re just the product of physical causes which occur in the brain. Thomas Henry Huxley came up with epiphenomenalism in the 19^th century, which he based on Thomas Hobbes’ materialism theories.

Property Dualism

Property dualism, in contrast to substance dualism, “suggests that there are mental and physical properties of the same substance, such as the activity of nerves in the brain,” says Tierney. That is, while the mind has non-physical properties, they emerge from the brain, a physical substance.

“For example,” Tierney explains, “the sensation of pain has physical properties involving actual brain activity, as well as mental properties that have to do with the subjective experience of, say, stubbing your toe.”

Epistemological Dualism

Epistemological dualism deals with the nature of knowledge, according to Tierney. This has to do with if the world we see and experience is actually the real world or, in fact, merely a copy generated by the brain’s neural processes. Tierney says that philosopher Immanuel Kant has some sense of this in his work.

This has also been used to distinguish knowledge from beliefs as well as reason from faith and facts from values. Knowledge, reason, and facts are objective, while belief, faith and values are subjective.

Arguments for Dualism

There are several arguments for dualism, including:

The Mind-Body Problem

The mind-body problem asks what is the relationship between the mind and the body? This has been resolved in different ways by different kinds of thinkers. For example, according to Daniel Boscaljon, PhD, director of research and co-founder of the Institute for Trauma Informed Relationships, for one branch of philosophers  “the mind’s theoretically unlimited potential is contrasted favorably with the body’s susceptibility to time and space.”

Tierney explains, “the way the mind-body problem is articulated supports dualism because it suggests that mental and physical properties are fundamentally different.” That is, the mind and body stand in contrast as two separate systems.

The Problem of Consciousness

The problem of consciousness, known as the “hard problem” of physics, observes that conscious states and physical states are not the same thing.

As Boscaljon says, “This often gets to the chicken and egg problem.” Some believe consciousness came first while others believe matter or the physical came first. Either way, this serves as an argument for dualism as it sets consciousness or the mind against the body as two different things.

The Argument From Personal Identity

This argument, which dates from the late 1700s, claims that a person’s identity is not the same as their physical body. “In the identity debates,” observes Tierney, “it is hard to find thinkers who argue that every aspect of the identity is physical.” This supports dualism and tends to lead to another kind of dualism: nature versus nurture.

Criticisms of Dualism

Criticisms of dualism include the following.

The Interaction Problem

Proponents of this criticism tell us that, as Boscaljon says, “it wouldn’t make sense for there to be two qualitatively different substances”—i.e. the mental and the physical. Instead, Tierney explains, “physical pain, for example, can interact with the mind and the mind can create physical pain in the body over time… If the mind and the body interact like this,” they can’t be separate the way dualists claim.

The Problem of Causal Closure

Causal closure states that every physical event is determined by a physical cause. This idea comes from materialist physics and states that while a physical object can be put upon by outside forces, there is no need for a non-physical explanation.

As a result, scientists who believe in this argue against dualism. According to Tierney, “this approach can be found in various regions of psychiatry, where behavior is about neurons and observable molecules, not the mind.”

The Argument from Neuroscience

This criticism stems from neuroscience’s discovery of “tight correlations between the functioning of the mind and the functioning of the physical brain.” Tierney takes this one step further, saying, “Beyond correlations are the neuroscientific findings that regions of the brain such as the thalamus can be directly stimulated to create changes in consciousness.

Additionally, chemical messengers like serotonin can have a dramatic effect on consciousness, as experienced when taking serotonin modulators such as magic mushrooms or LSD.” Neuroscience is, thus, a strong voice against dualism.

Dualism in Different Fields

Dualism shows up in a variety of fields. Here are three:

• Dualism in Philosophy of Mind: Philosophy of mind is a very large field that often champions dualism. “Most people interested in philosophy of the mind likely reject the importance of material reality,” says Boscaljon, “especially those trained in Anglo-American philosophy or newer schools of consciousness studies that ascribe to…the belief that everything reduces to the mind.” Much of what we’ve reviewed in this article comes from philosophy of the mind.
• Dualism in Religion and Spirituality: Many current schools of religion or spirituality embrace dualism, especially the separation of the soul or spirit (instead of the mind) and the body. As Boscaljon observes, while the soul is infinite to these schools, the body is finite, fallen, and weak. This is the core of many religious beliefs about the immortal soul and the afterlife.
• Dualism in Psychology and Cognitive Science: Branches of psychology and cognitive science that believe in dualism tend to study the mental processes that aren’t completely explained by physical processes alone. For instance, Tierney cites subjective experiences and consciousness as two processes that can’t be understood by only studying the brain.

Contemporary Perspectives on Dualism

The following represent some of the more modern perspectives and arguments around the idea of dualism:

• Dualism vs. Monism: While dualism separates the mind and body, monism takes the approach that everything has a single substance or cause—that, as Boscaljon says, it is all mind or all matter. Generally, Tierney observes, monists adhere to the physical being the cause of everything.
• Dualism and Materialism: Materialism, unlike dualism, proposes “that everything is material or physical, including the mind,” says Tierney. Materialism, according to Boscaljon, defines itself in terms of quantifiable elements, ignoring everything else.
• Dualism and Emergentism: Emergentism, says Boscaljon, suggests that “things can be more than the sum of their parts.” Tierney furthers this argument, saying, “In the context of mind-body, emergentism suggests that mental states are emergent properties of the brain. In the context of the universe, some emergentists argue that consciousness is an emergent property of matter.” This is largely in contrast to dualism that see mind and body as separate.

Summary

Dualism states that the mind, or nonphysical, is different in substance from the body, or physical. There are several kinds of dualism including substance, property, and epistemological dualism. While dualism can trace its roots back to ancient Greece, perhaps 17^th century philosopher Rene Descartes articulated the dualist view most clearly.

While there are arguments both for and against dualism, it’s hard not to appreciate this viewpoint. Entire philosophies have been built around binaries such as mind-body, good-bad, subject-object, and one-many.

When somebody has repeated exposure to traumatic events and experiences, they may develop complex trauma.

The National Child Traumatic Stress Network describes complex trauma as exposure to multiple traumatic events, as well as the “wide-ranging, long-term effects” of this exposure. It’s different from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), in that PTSD is caused by one single traumatic event. You may hear complex trauma be described as complex post-traumatic stress disorder, or C-PTSD. 

Complex trauma is one of the LGBTQIA+ community’s biggest challenges – it affects LGBTQIA+ people at a higher rate than the population as a whole, for reasons including discrimination, bullying, abuse, and isolation. 

However, there are ways to help and support LGBTQIA+ people who are dealing with complex trauma. Here, we’ll explore why LGBTQIA+ people are more likely to be affected by complex trauma, how it affects them, and what we can do. 

Understanding Complex Trauma

Complex trauma often forms through exposure to incidents or experiences from which someone feels as though they can’t escape. 

Children are more likely to develop complex trauma than adults, though complex trauma can develop at any age. LGBTQIA+ people may develop complex trauma through oppression, discrimination, and bullying. Meanwhile, neglect in childhood, as well as physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, can all contribute to the development of complex trauma.

And, she says that over 40% of LGBTQIA+ people meet the criteria for a diagnosis of PTSD at any point.

But there are other stressors, too, which may not be so overtly traumatic but can stack up cumulatively – closer meeting the definition of complex trauma. “When you think about PTSD, initially, someone has to have a major trauma to meet the criteria,” explains Dr Haas.

“But oftentimes in this community, it’s actually a series of smaller stressors as well that amount to be a larger trauma, and so it’s something that actually gets missed more often than because they may not have had, like a single car accident trauma sort of thing, but they have a series of chronic traumas over time that you have to ask about, and that can actually meet the threshold of criteria for PTSD.”

It’s important to consider other causes of complex trauma, that may intersect with the complex trauma LGBTQIA+ individuals are more likely to experience. For example, an LGBTQIA+ person of color may develop complex trauma from racism as well as homophobia or transphobia, and the idea that being cisgender and heterosexual is ‘normal’ or ‘correct’.

This is a form of cultural violence – but anti-LGBTQIA+ cultural violence is almost unique in that it often comes from places like the family. And, LGBTQIA+ people who experience rejection from their family are more likely to be at higher risk of homelessness, self-harm, suicide, and various mental health conditions. 

Likewise, an LGBTQIA+ person may also develop complex trauma from living in poverty – LGBTQIA+ people disproportionately live in poverty – from violence, war, or terrorism, or from having a family member who struggles with mental health or substance use disorder.

Prevalence of Complex Trauma in the LGBTQIA+ Community

While anyone can develop complex trauma, it’s more prevalent in LGBTQIA+ individuals. Research from 2017 suggests that around 3% of people have complex trauma, while it’s thought that LGBTQIA+ young people are disproportionately exposed to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and potentially traumatic events (PTEs) when compared to non-LGBTQIA+ young people. And, there’s a correlation between these events and an increased risk of both mental and physical health difficulties.

Per The GLSEN National School Climate Survey, over half (59.5%) of LGBTQ+ students felt unsafe at school due to their sexual orientation, and almost half (44.6%) due to their gender expression. Meanwhile, 62.2% of LGBTQ+ students experienced discriminatory policies at school, while a huge 98.5% reported hearing homophobic and transphobic comments from teachers and fellow students, with 91.8% of students feeling distressed as a result.

And, on a larger scale, the enaction of anti-LGBTQIA+ legislation can be a contributing factor. Take the anti-LGBTQIA+ laws dictating what can be taught as part of the curriculum, 

According to the CPTSD Foundation, 48% of gay and bisexual people and 42% of transgender and non-binary people have complex trauma. Meanwhile, Dr Haas says that over 50% of the patients in her residential trauma, complex trauma, and dissociative disorder program are in the LGBTQ+ community.

Impact of Complex Trauma on LGBTQIA+ Individuals

“When you think about trauma in other communities or other minority groups, for example, sometimes those individuals might be experiencing discrimination and hate crimes and things of that nature and assault by the community or in various element aspects of their life, but when they go home, they may often have the support of their community,” explains Dr. Haas.

In contrast, LGBTQIA+ people might not always have that support at home, and may even experience the same sort of traumas at home, too, from their family. Many LGBTQIA+ people are used to simply not having any support, and never being heard. As Dr. Haas puts it, “When I think about treatment, the first thing is, what was home life actually like? Was there ever a moment of peace and respite, or was it kind of always hate and terror all the time? It may actually be very different than their peers.”

The effects of trauma on LGBTQIA+ people can be similar to the effects of trauma on their cisgender and heterosexual counterparts. However, after a traumatic event, LGBTQIA+ people are more likely to progress to developing PTSD simply because they’re less likely to have the support of their family, or a community. So, LGBTQIA+ people can often feel isolated and lonely after experiencing trauma. 

Of course, many LGBTQIA+ people find community online, and this can be helpful. However, it’s important to have support in your immediate surroundings, too, particularly when you’re going through or have been through trauma. 

Trauma-Informed Care for the LGBTQIA+ Community

Getting help for complex trauma isn’t always easy for people in the LGBTQIA+ community. Treatment can be expensive, meaning that some people are priced out – and those who can afford it may still find that the financial burden causes more stress and anxiety. It’s important to remember, too, that when LGBTQIA+ young people do reach out, they’re met with higher rates of stigma and discrimination – and this can add to their stress, and further alienate them.

According to Keith Menhinick, PhD, visiting assistant professor of Spiritual Care and Pastoral Theology at Emory University, “A general rule of trauma-informed care, especially when working with LGBTQ+ people, is to treat everyone as if they have a history of trauma. However, we should be careful not to ask about someone’s trauma too quickly.”

“Establishing environments of safety is always the top priority,” says Dr Menhinick. “In our work with others, especially those who have experienced trauma, we must move at the speed of trust. Building trust takes time and a commitment to keep showing up. A common maxim in trauma studies is the slower you go, the faster you get there.”

This is something echoed by Dr Haas, who explains that, when treating trauma in LGBTQ+ patients, safety comes first, and she aims to make the space and her approach non-judgment-focused. “That’s not just judgment from staff or peers, but also internal judgment and internal shame and the negative narrative people can have in our their mind – when we treat ourselves in that way, we are actually re-traumatizing ourselves, and we can’t heal from that, right?” she says. 

She explains that the LGBTQ+ people she works with will look at how their identity changes, how their identity affects trauma, trauma symptoms, and what affects their likelihood of developing trauma. “We have groups specifically for the LGBTQ+ community in the program to give them a safe space to talk about some of the things that are interwoven with their traumatic experiences but may not apply to the whole group,” she continues. 

Healing and Recovery for LGBTQIA+ Individuals With Complex Trauma

There are many things that LGBTQIA+ people with complex trauma can try to help with healing and recovery, too. 

Among the treatments available for LGBTQIA+ people with complex trauma include psychotherapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), exposure therapy, and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). 

Often, the same treatments used to help manage PTSD can be useful, but people with complex trauma can sometimes need more intensive treatment over a longer period of time. It can also be helpful to get support with other conditions you may have, like anxiety, depression, or dissociation. 

Self-care can also be really beneficial when dealing with complex trauma. It helps to have friends and loved ones to speak to, while on your own you could try meditation or journaling. Consistency and sticking to a routine can help, too. This might involve going to bed and waking up at the same times each day, keeping track of your daily chores, or making sure you exercise, enjoying a nutritious diet with plenty of water, and staying on top of personal hygiene.

Advocacy and Support for the LGBTQIA+ Community

For LGBTQIA+ people affected by complex trauma, groups and organizations providing safe spaces and advocacy for them are invaluable.

The CPTSD Foundation works with survivors of trauma worldwide and offers a lot of resources to support people with complex trauma. Meanwhile, Out of the Storm offers a free and anonymous service to adults living with the symptoms of complex trauma. 

Beauty After Bruises helps people who experienced trauma as children, while for teens and young adults, The Trevor Project’s TrevorSpace is an online community and source of support. 

Keep in Mind

Living with complex trauma can be tough, but there are resources out there that can help. You could speak to a loved one or your physician, or take a look at the resources above.  If you aren’t living with complex trauma yourself, but would like to better support a friend or loved one, the resources above may still be useful – and you can help in the meantime simply by listening and letting them know you’re there.