Posts in category: Dating Tips, Guide and Advice

What is it that makes some people excel in leadership roles? Leadership theories seek to explain how and why certain people become leaders. Such theories often focus on the characteristics of leaders, but some attempt to identify the behaviors that people can adopt to improve their own leadership abilities in different situations.

Early debates on the psychology of leadership often suggested that such skills were simply abilities that people were born with. In other words, these theories proposed that certain people were simply “born leaders.” Some more recent theories propose that possessing certain traits may help make people natural leaders, but experience and situational variables also play a critical role.

A Closer Look at Leadership Theories

As interest in the psychology of leadership has increased over the last 100 years, a number of different leadership theories have been introduced to explain exactly how and why certain people become great leaders.

What exactly makes a great leader? Do certain personality traits make people better suited to leadership roles, or do characteristics of the situation make it more likely that certain people will take charge? When we look at the leaders around us—be it our employer or the President—we might find ourselves wondering exactly why these individuals excel in such positions.

People have long been interested in leadership throughout human history, but a number of formal leadership theories have only emerged relatively recently. Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century.

Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished leaders from followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types.

“Great Man” Theories

Have you ever heard someone described as “born to lead?” According to this view, great leaders are simply born with the necessary internal characteristics, such as charisma, confidence, intelligence, and social skills, to be natural-born leaders.

Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent—that great leaders are born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic, and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term “Great Man” was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

Such theories suggest that people cannot really learn how to become strong leaders. Leadership is either something you are born with or born without. This is very much a nature (as opposed to nurture) approach to explaining leadership.

Trait Theories

Similar in some ways to Great Man theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify a particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. For example, traits like extroversion, self-confidence, and courage are all traits that could potentially be linked to great leaders.

If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.

Plenty of people possess the personality traits associated with leadership, yet many of these people never seek out leadership positions. There are also people who lack some of the key traits often associated with effective leadership yet still excel at leading groups.

Contingency Theories

Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations.

Leadership researchers White and Hodgson suggest that truly effective leadership is not just about the qualities of the leader; it is about striking the right balance between behaviors, needs, and context.

Good leaders are able to assess the needs of their followers, take stock of the situation, and then adjust their behaviors accordingly. Success depends on a number of variables including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.

Situational Theories

Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.

For example, in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and experienced member of a group, an authoritarian style might be most appropriate. In other instances where group members are skilled experts, a democratic style would be more effective.

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theories of leadership are based on the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Consider this the flip side of the Great Man theories. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on leaders’ actions, not on their mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

Participative Theories

Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

Management Theories

Management theories, also known as transactional theories, focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded and when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

Relationship Theories

Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task.

These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want every person to fulfill their potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.

What Kind of Leader Are You?

Try our fast and free quiz to find out your usual leadership style.

This leadership styles quiz was reviewed by Rachel Goldman, PhD, FTOS.

Thinking “I don’t trust anyone” strongly suggests that trust issues may be present. Sometimes people use this phrase to indicate a lack of trust for people they don’t know well. In other cases, the use of this phrase could suggest a more serious difficulty in trusting anyone at all.

Here we discuss what it means when we don’t trust others, what causes this feeling, and the impact of trusting nobody at all. We also share a few steps that can be taken to develop more trusting relationships.

What It Means to Not Trust Anyone

When we trust someone, it means that we believe they are dependable, reliable, and honest. A certain amount of trust is necessary for relationships. But trusting other people is not always easy, and the closer the relationship is, the harder it can be because it requires that we reveal ourselves to the other person.

This can be a big ask, and not everyone is prepared or willing to accept the risk of making themselves vulnerable. They may struggle with believing that others will live up to their expectations or act with good intentions, thus reducing their desire to share their true selves.

In some cases, a lack of trust is less about the other person and more about people in general. Generalized trust involves our ability to trust other members of society. So, a lack of generalized trust involves not being able to trust anyone at all.

This type of trust plays an important part in social functioning and creating a sense of community. Research has found that it also has positive individual benefits, including greater happiness and health.

Reasons We Don’t Trust People

Research suggests that a lack of trust is often caused by social experiences. Relationships with family members and peers, for example, give us opportunities to trust and depend on the people close to us.
When these people aren’t trustworthy, or if we have an experience where our trust is repeatedly broken, we may end up feeling like the people around us are fundamentally unreliable.

According to the social learning perspective, people continually adjust their degree of social trust based on their experiences and interactions. This means that, in addition to early learning experiences as a child, the events of our lives continue to impact how much we trust others. Here are some of the reasons we might have a hard time trusting anyone.

Early Childhood Experiences

Trust starts to form in the earliest days of life as infants discover whether they can rely on their parents and others’ care. Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson called this phase of life the trust vs. mistrust stage, and he believed that it plays a pivotal role in setting the course of future development.

Important people in our lives can affect our trust levels later in life. If we trust the people around us and they reciprocate that trust, we’ll grow closer to them. However, if that trust is broken, we may find ourselves trusting others less in the future.

Bullying or Rejection

Throughout our lives, our interpersonal and social experiences affect the trust we place in others. Being bullied or experiencing social rejection as a child can both contribute to trust issues. If those around us repeatedly hurt us, it may be difficult to trust anyone as an adult because of the fear that we’ll be hurt again.

Negative Relationship Experiences

Unhealthy romantic relationships can also make it tough to trust people. For example, an emotionally abusive partner might make it difficult for us to trust other people in the future because of the fear that they’ll hurt or take advantage of us.

Trauma or PTSD

Mental health conditions or traumatic events can also contribute to trust issues because they affect how we see ourselves as well as our relationships with others. For example, trust issues may manifest as a symptom of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Personality

Certain personality traits might contribute to a general lack of trust in others. As an example, one study found that people who tend to rate higher on the characteristic of neuroticism appear to be less likely to trust others. 

Research also suggests that a characteristic known as locus of control can play a role in our ability to trust others. Locus of control is a belief about how much control we have over the events that occur in our lives.

People with a low or external locus of control believe that what happens to them is largely out of their control. Those with a high or internal locus of control tend to believe that their fate is largely in their own hands.

Effects of Not Trusting Anyone

When trust is broken, it often becomes harder to put our faith in people in the future. However, trust issues could hurt us in the long run because they prevent us from connecting with others or receiving support when we need it. Not being able to trust can also negatively impact how other people respond to us. 

Research has shown that other people are more likely to respond with greater negativity when they know that we don’t trust them. In one study, people who knew that others didn’t trust them felt more negative emotions, had lower opinions of those who didn’t trust them, and were less like to behave in altruistic ways toward those who couldn’t trust them.

This can also affect how people are willing to act in social situations. When we don’t trust people, we may be less likely to interact with them. The consequence of this is fewer social opportunities, fewer relationships, less social support, and ultimately, fewer chances for other people to earn our trust.

How to Start Trusting People Again

Even if we find it hard to trust people, some strategies may help us learn how to form better relationships and become more trusting in different situations.

Start Small

Look for small ways to trust people. Trust is always a matter of degree. We might trust some people with some things but not with others.

A good way to become more trusting is to push ourselves to trust other people in small doses until we can trust something more significant. Once someone proves themselves capable of earning our trust when it comes to the small stuff, we might find ourselves more comfortable depending on them even more.

Stay Positive

Try to be optimistic about others. Start with the belief that there are good people out there. Approaching social situations with an open mind and optimistic mindset may help reduce the distrust of people in general.

Trust Carefully

Trusting too easily can wind up in disappointment. Start by learning to trust people to the degree that the situation calls for. In many cases, this might involve a more superficial trust based on a mutually agreed-upon set of expectations.

We might trust our mechanic to fix our car, for instance, and they trust us to pay them for the work they have done. In other cases, the person in our lives may have to prove themselves dependable, honest, and worthy of our trust.

Talk to a Therapist

If a lack of trust in people affects the ability to function normally or causes distress, consider talking to a mental health professional. Several different therapy approaches can help uncover and replace underlying negative thoughts that might be affecting the ability to trust.

A therapist can also help individuals practice social situations and develop new coping skills that may be helpful when it comes to learning how to trust people. The therapeutic relationship with a therapist can also be an excellent opportunity to learn and practice trusting another person.

If someone you know has borderline personality disorder (BPD), you may have noticed that as that person grows older (into their late 30s and 40s), their symptoms seem to decline in frequency and severity. In fact, this a common phenomenon among those with BPD and has become a major subject of research among healthcare professionals and psychiatrists. 

Age and BPD Symptoms

While researchers are not exactly sure why BPD symptoms decline with age, some experts have suggested some potential reasons, including burn out, learning, and avoidance of relationships. These can be linked to both biological and environmental factors. 

Burn Out

Some experts have speculated that BPD symptoms decline because the symptoms naturally “burn out” or that people simply grow out of the symptoms as they mature. In particular, research has shown that the impulsivity symptoms of BPD are the most likely to decline over time. This is consistent with the observation that, in general, older people engage in less impulsive behavior, even if they do not have BPD.

Just as partying all night loses its appeal for many in their forties and fifties, impulsive or reckless BPD behaviors may also seem less natural. 

Learning

Other experts think that BPD symptoms may decline because as you age, you learn how to better manage your symptoms. For some people, this learning may come as the result of intensive treatment, but for others, this may be the result of the natural learning that comes from negotiating life’s challenges.

Through experience and trying different treatment options and coping skills, you may be able to decrease the severity of symptoms or handle them before they start. This is similar to learning any skill—with practice over time, it becomes easier to accomplish. 

Avoidance of Intimate Relationships

Finally, experts have speculated that BPD symptoms decline because, over time, a person with BPD may learn to avoid situations that trigger symptoms. For example, for many people with BPD, problems in interpersonal relationships trigger the most intense reactions and symptoms.

While some people have reported success with this approach, it is hardly considered a solid treatment option. Avoidance and living a solitary life are not considered healthy approaches to BPD but does play a role in decreasing symptom frequency. 

Other Theories

It is important to note that some experts dispute whether it is a person’s age or simply the duration of time he or she has had BPD that is linked to the decline in their symptoms. In other words, is it the age of the person that predicts their symptoms, or how long they have had BPD?

Middle-aged adults with BPD were more likely to exhibit feelings of chronic emptiness and have higher degrees of social impairment. They were less likely to have impulsivity, engage in self-harm, or have rapid shifts in mood. 

How BPD Symptoms Change Over Time

Some research indicates that BPD symptoms tend to wax and wane over the course of life. Symptoms of the condition usually first appear in adolescence. While these symptoms may lessen or change as people grow older, they are often still present during later adulthood, while the presentation of these symptoms can depend on the situation and context. 

BPD Symptoms in Adolescence

BPD symptoms often start to emerge in early adolescence. Symptoms may worsen through adolescence, particularly if risk factors like low socioeconomic status, stressful life events, family adversity, and exposure to abuse are present.

During the teen years, symptoms typically include impulsivity, emotional instability, and identity issues. While such characteristics tend to be common in teens, they are more pronounced and enduring in kids with BPD.

BPD Symptoms in Adulthood

Researchers indicate that the adult symptoms of BPD are predominantly characterized by impulsivity, emotional dysregulation, maladaptive interpersonal functioning, and suicidality.

Despite improvements in impulsivity symptoms, questionnaires suggest that people continue to experience symptoms, including affective symptoms (such as anger, feelings of emptiness, and dysphoria) and interpersonal problems (such as fears of abandonment) throughout adulthood.

Longitudinal research suggests that certain factors are associated with remission and recovery. Such factors include having lower levels of neuroticism, higher levels of agreeableness, no history of childhood sexual abuse, and no family history of substance use.

Research has yet to identify the exact cause. Whether it is a result of natural maturation or a change in brain chemistry over time, scientists continue to look for the association, as it may significantly impact diagnosing and treating people with BPD in the future. If there is, in fact, a change in brain chemistry, it could mean that potential medications could mimic this effect and help lessen symptoms.