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Obedience is a form of social influence that involves acting on the orders of an authority figure. It often involves actions a person would not have taken unless they were directed to do so by someone of authority or influence.

To understand obedience, it is important to also understand how it differs from compliance and conformity. Compliance involves changing your behavior at the request of another person, while conformity consists in altering your behavior to go along with the rest of the group.

Obedience vs. Conformity: How They Differ

Obedience is an essential concept in psychology. The question of why people obey others, its impact on society, and the factors that impact obedience are essential in understanding social behavior and social influence.  However, obedience must be distinguished from other types of social influence, including conformity.

Obedience differs from conformity in three key ways:

• Obedience involves an order; conformity involves a request.
• Obedience is obeying someone of a higher status; conformity is going along with people of equal status.
• Obedience relies on social power; conformity relies on the need to be socially accepted.

Milgram’s Obedience Experiments

During the 1950s, psychologist Stanley Milgram became intrigued with the conformity experiments performed by Solomon Asch. Asch’s work had demonstrated that people could easily be swayed to conform to group pressure, but Milgram wanted to see just how far people would be willing to go.

The trial of Adolf Eichmann, who had planned and managed the mass deportation of Jews during World War II, helped spark Milgram’s interest in obedience.

Throughout the trial, Eichmann suggested that he was simply following orders. He claimed that he felt no guilt for his role in the mass murders because he had only been doing what his superiors requested and he had played no role in the decision to exterminate the captives.

Milgram’s Question

After the horrors of the Holocaust, some people, such as Eichmann, explained their participation in the atrocities by suggesting they were doing as they were commanded.

Milgram had set out to explore the question, “Are Germans different?” In other words, he wondered if perhaps there were some factors at work that had made German citizens obey orders more than others might. He soon discovered, however, that many people are surprisingly obedient to authority.

Milgram’s Results

Milgram’s studies involved placing participants in a room and directing them to deliver electrical shocks to a “learner” located in another room. Unbeknownst to the participant, the person supposedly receiving the shocks was actually in on the experiment and was merely acting out responses to imaginary shocks.

Surprisingly, Milgram found that 65% of participants were willing to deliver the maximum level of shocks on the experimenter’s orders.

Recent Criticisms Cast Doubt on Milgram’s Findings

Milgram’s experiments have long been criticized as unethical, but more recent findings have further complicated the legacy of his research. After examining experimental archives, researchers found that participants in the famous study were often coerced into delivering shocks, which has significant implications for the study’s final results. 

While 65% of the participants followed orders, it is essential to note that the statistics only apply to one study variation. In other trials, fewer people were willing to go through with the shocks, and in some cases, every participant refused to follow orders.

Modern Replications

Despite the problems with Milgram’s original study, some researchers have been able to replicate his findings. In 2009, researchers partially replicated Milgram’s study, but with a top shock of 150 volts. The study found that obedience rates were only slightly lower than those originally reported by Milgram.

Another 2017 replication conducted by researcher in Poland found that 90% of people were willing to go to the highest voltage level.

Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment

Milgram’s controversial experiments generated a great deal of interest in the psychology of obedience. During the early 1970s, social psychologist Philip Zimbardo staged an exploration into the study of prisoners and prison life.

Zimbardo’s Experiment

He set up a mock prison in the basement of the Stanford University psychology department and assigned his participants to play the roles of either prisoners or guards, with Zimbardo himself acting as the prison warden.

According to the researchers, the study had to be discontinued after a mere six days even though it was initially slated to last two weeks. Why did the researchers end the experiment so early? Because the participants had become so involved in their roles, the guards utilized authoritarian techniques to gain the obedience of the prisoners.

The study’s authors suggested that the guards even subjected the prisoners to psychological abuse, harassment, and physical torture.

Contemporary Criticisms

Like Milgram’s experiments, Zimbardo’s experiment has not fared well under more recent analysis. In addition to the long-noted ethical problems with the study, a more recent analysis of the study’s methods has revealed serious issues with the experiment’s design, methods, procedures, and authenticity.

Participants in the study reportedly faked their responses to leave early. Others reported amplifying their behaviors to help give the experimenters the results they were looking for. Critics suggest that the study lacks scientific merit and credibility due to these notable problems with its procedures.

Factors That Impact Obedience

A variety of individual and social factors can impact the likelihood that a person will obey a leader. Some factors that might play a role include:

• Personality characteristics: Certain personality traits, including conscientiousness and agreeableness, have been linked to greater obedience to authority.
• Psychological distance: You may be more likely to engage in obedience to authority if the effects of your obedience feel distant, abstract, or unconnected to your life.
• Ambiguity or lack of information: In ambiguous situations, a person may be more likely to obey someone who seems to have more information than they do.
• Fear of consequences: Obedience often happens because people fear the consequences of disobedience. Children often obey partners or teachers, for example, because they fear punishment or losing privileges if they disobey.

Understanding the Psychology of Obedience

Recognizing the power of obedience can help shed light on why people sometimes follow the orders of an authority figure, even if it violates their own personal beliefs or morals. Helping leaders understand their power in social situations can also help them use it more effectively and responsibly.

Building this understanding may also help people better recognize abuses of power and find ways to better promote responsible, ethical behavior.

Object relations theory is centered on our internal relationships with others. According to this theory, our lifelong relationship skills are strongly rooted in our early attachments with our parents, especially our mothers.

Objects refer to people or physical items that symbolically represent a person or part of a person. Object relations, then, are our internalized relationships with those people.

External and Internal Objects

There are two primary types of objects in object relations theory: external and internal ones.

External Objects

An external object is an actual person or thing that someone invests in with emotional energy. A whole object is a person as they actually exist, with all the positive and negative traits they embody.

Internal Objects

An internal object is our psychological and emotional impression of a person. It is the representation that we hold onto when the person is not physically there, and it influences how we view the person in real life.

Consequently, the internal object greatly impacts our relationship with the person that it represents.

Object Constancy

Object constancy is the ability to recognize that objects do not change simply because we do not see them. Infants begin to learn object constancy when their parents leave for a short time and then return. As children mature, they begin to spend longer periods of time away from their parents.

Whole Object Relations

Another important concept in object relations theory is the idea of whole object relations. This idea suggests that people can view people as an integrated and stable whole. This includes both the positive and negative qualities of a person. 

It’s a phenomenon known as “splitting,” and it tends to be common in people who have borderline personality disorder. 

While the causes of borderline personality disorder are complex, it has been linked to negative childhood experiences, including abuse, trauma, neglect, and abandonment. Other research has found that object relations also predict BPD symptoms.

The Importance of Early Relationships

According to the object relations theory, the way mothers and infants interact plays a crucial role in infant growth and development. If care is adequate or “good enough,” children are able to develop their true selves, which is the part of the baby that is creative and spontaneous.

If the care is inadequate, children create a false self or one that is playing to the needs of others and is based on compliance with others’ expectations, instead of the child’s authentic self.

Over time, acceptable parental care that will create the true self includes the following stages:

• Father, mother, and infant, all three living together: The dynamics and interactions that the child experiences with their mother and father influence the child’s experience and expectations of what family relationships will be like later in life.
• Holding: Actual physical affection and holding, including cuddling, holding hands, or lap sitting, is familiar and regular behavior in satisfactory parental care. These later become internalized as a sense of psychological “holding.”
• Mother and infant living together: Experiencing the daily routine of both psychological and physical care, such as eating, grooming, and interacting through mundane tasks, are important for the baby’s proper development.

History of Object Relations Theory

The theory emerged as a variation of Freudian psychoanalytic theory. Object relations theory developed during the late 1920s and 1930s and shaped psychoanalytic theory during the 1970s.

Object relations theory grew out of the work of early psychoanalytic thinkers, including:

• Sandor Ferenczi
• Harry Stack Sullivan
• Karl Abraham
• Margaret Mahler
• Melanie Klein

While she did not originate the theory, Melanie Klein’s ideas are often identified with object relations theory. Her work diverged from Freud’s theory, which stressed how controlling sexual urges influenced development. Instead, Klein believed that the early months of infancy significantly influenced development.

Ronald Fairborn extended Klein’s ideas, suggesting that these relationships remain essential as children progress from the complete dependence of early childhood to the more independent years of later childhood. He also indicated that children internalize their early experiences.

Uses for Object Relations Theory

Object relations therapy is an approach rooted in object relations theory. It seeks to help people improve their relationships with others. To do this, people work with a therapist to understand how their childhood relationships may influence their interactions in adult relationships. 

This therapy approach may help people experiencing problems in their relationships. Understanding their emotions and internalized beliefs can help people develop a healthier approach to their social relationships.

For example, a therapist might work to explore some faulty beliefs that may have formed due to poor connections with caregivers in infancy and childhood. People can work to replace these ideas with healthier expectations for how interpersonal and romantic relationships should work.

Object relations theory is sometimes used to treat phobias, particularly those that focus on our relationships with people.

In most cases, becoming a psychologist takes somewhere between eight and 12 years of schooling. However, when considering a career in psychology, this timeframe is not always cut-and-dry. The amount of time it takes to complete your college education depends largely on your specialty area and career interests.

If you want to pursue a career in psychology, it is important to be aware of all the educational and training requirements for becoming a licensed psychologist. Take the time to research your options and carefully examine your goals before you decide if this is the right career for you. This information can help.

Educational Requirements to Become a Psychologist

At a minimum, working in this field generally requires that you earn a bachelor’s degree in psychology or a related field such as sociology, education, anthropology, or social work. The next step is to decide if you want to earn a master’s or doctorate-level degree.

The reason it’s beneficial to make this decision even before beginning undergraduate schooling is that some programs do not offer a master’s degree in psychology. In such cases, you will need to enroll in a graduate program after earning your bachelor’s degree and then spend four to seven years working on your doctorate.

Of course, there are other career options in psychology that do not require as many years of college. For example, you could become a licensed marriage and family therapist with a master’s degree, which would only require two to three years of graduate study.

If you decide not to pursue a doctorate at this point, start looking at different master’s degree programs in psychology or in related fields such as counseling or social work. Learn your options and what each educational path prepares you for in terms of a psychology career.

Bachelor’s Degree

You might want to begin by earning your undergraduate degree in psychology, but some people choose to pursue a degree in a related social science field. While it depends upon the requirements of the individual graduate school you plan to attend, some programs also accept students who have undergraduate degrees in a subject unrelated to psychology or social science.

Master’s Degree

A master’s degree can be a great way to delve deeper into a specific field of interest. However, a master’s is not always necessary. If you are interested in what is known as a terminal master’s degree in a field such as counseling, social work, or school psychology, you can often enter the workforce immediately after completing your education.

In other cases, you might use your master’s degree as a stepping stone toward a doctorate, or you might choose to forgo a master’s program and go directly into a Ph.D. or Psy.D. program immediately after earning your bachelor’s degree. The path you take depends largely on your career goals and the graduate program offerings at the school you choose to attend.

Doctorate Degree

The length of your doctoral program depends on many factors, including the specialty area you are pursuing as well as whether or not you have already earned a master’s degree. In order to become a licensed psychologist, every state’s licensing board requires that you earn either a Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy) or a Psy.D. (Doctor of Psychology).

As with your master’s degree, the doctorate degree you pursue really depends on your career goals. If you are interested in a career in research, a Ph.D. might be the best choice. Ph.D. programs place greater emphasis on research, experimental methods, and training graduates to work as scientists.

If you are more interested in starting a private therapy practice, consider a Psy.D degree. The Psy.D. option tends to be more centered on professional practice and clinical work, preparing graduates to enter careers in mental health.

The American Psychological Association recommends that you enroll in an accredited program. Accreditation provides public notification that an institution or program meets certain standards of quality.

Degree Requirements for Other Psychology Roles

Becoming a licensed psychologist working in the field of mental health is certainly not the only career option if you are interested in the field of psychology. Licensing requirements for psychologists vary by state and specialty. Careers in forensic or sports psychology, for example, have differing requirements.

It can be helpful to learn about different degree options and requirements for various careers in psychology. Here are a few to consider. Please note that these represent the minimum educational requirements in these fields. Additionally, job opportunities and pay are generally greater with advanced training.

Final Thoughts

Becoming a psychologist requires a substantial commitment of time, but this can be a rewarding career. Before you decide if becoming a psychologist is the right choice for you, consider your goals and resources as well as some of the potential alternatives. There are many different types of mental health professionals.

You might find that being a psychologist is the perfect choice for you, or you may find that an alternative career path is better suited to your needs. For example, you might also consider becoming a psychiatrist, counselor, physical therapist, or enter some other career centered on helping people. There are also a number of types of psychologists and each field has its own educational and training requirements.

As the United States continues to go through a reckoning with regard to racial and social injustice, many people are eager to examine and refute harmful stereotypes about minority groups. Latin Americans are one example of a large population that has been labeled by such assumptions.

Stereotypes have contributed to the widespread discrimination experienced by Latinx individuals, which can have powerful effects on overall mental and emotional well-being. “Stereotypes are harmful because people tend to see them as the truth,” says Yolanda Renteria, LPC, “which leads to increased criticism, hostility, hate crimes, exclusion, and racism.”

Read on for six examples of common Latinx stereotypes to avoid.

“All Latin Americans Have Homogenous Origins”

Latin America is comprised of 33 different countries, located within South America, Central America, and the Caribbean islands. Just like each of the European countries has different cultures and traditions, so do the individual countries in Latin America.

There are a substantial number of people from South America living in the U.S. While many may speak Spanish like those in Mexico and Central America, their heritage is not one and the same.

This is why it’s important to ask a person of Hispanic descent how they’d like to be identified before labeling them yourself. “Recognizing people’s unique cultures, just like we do for people of European descent, helps people feel seen and feel proud of their heritage and ethnic origin,” says Renteria.

“Latin American Immigrants Are Out to Steal American Jobs”

This is another harmful Latinx stereotype that often leads to discrimination and assumptions about one’s immigration status. Yet, high rates of immigration (documented or undocumented) do not exacerbate unemployment. In fact, research suggests the opposite.

According to one study, immigration actually lowers unemployment—even for native individuals. This study also found that immigration positively impacts pricing and public finances.

“Maintaining the false belief that immigrants are stealing people’s jobs usually makes people in the larger group feel threatened and act hostile towards immigrants,” says Renteria, “which leads to a greater sense of being excluded for marginalized groups.”

“Latino Masculinity Equals Dominance and Violence”

This is rooted in the concept of “machismo,” a set of cultural beliefs about manhood. Machismo emphasizes male strength, honor, emotional reserve, and confidence. Like gender roles in any culture, these traits can be helpful or harmful depending on the context.

When certain ideals are taken too far, machismo has been associated with sexist attitudes and emotional repression. However, many Latino men are moving away from rigid gender roles toward a more flexible definition of masculinity, emphasizing positive traits like chivalry and bravery.

“Latin American Women Are Always the Home Caretakers and Don’t Work Traditional Jobs”

Another common stereotype is that Latin American women aren’t part of the American workforce and always default to staying at home and caring for children. This is false.

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics shows that among Latinas aged 25 to 54, over two-thirds are part of the civilian labor force. There are many high-achieving Latin American women in all fields, from law to science and athletics, and perpetuating stereotypes won’t help them pursue their goals.

It is worth noting that prejudice does impact Latin American women’s access to certain jobs. Latin American women are vastly underrepresented in fields commonly dominated by White individuals. For example, only 1% of higher education faculty identify as Latina.

In addition, Latin American women are less likely to be assigned leadership positions. The U.S. Government Accountability Office reports that while approximately 69% of female managers in the country are White, the number of Latino or Hispanic female managers is closer to 12%.

“All Latin American Families Have Multiple Children” 

A study by Pew Research Center reveals that the average family size varies little between ethnicities. Specifically, it noted that all ethnicities of mothers in their early 40s (Hispanic, Black, White, and Asian) had between 2.2 and 2.6 children, on average.

This stereotype is harmful because it plays into the assumption that Latinas are “promiscuous” and destined to become teenage mothers. However, the mean age for giving birth to their first child is 26.5 for mothers of Central or South American ethnicity, 24.1 for those from Puerto Rico, and 23.7 for mothers of Mexican descent.

“Latin Americans Are Unwilling to Learn English”

This stereotype is heavily present with people assuming the Latin American people they encounter on a daily basis don’t understand what they’re saying or, worse, mock them when they try to communicate with limited English. There tends to be a double standard in these interactions, as only 20% of native-born Americans can speak a second language well enough to hold a conversation.

The stereotype is also fed into by the education system, with teachers and administrators assuming kids who speak English as their second language don’t want to learn. A lack of funding and support for English language learning programs can hamper students’ ability to progress in their studies.

Finally, disparaging someone’s speaking ability or poking fun at their accent (like we often see in popular shows like Modern Family) is sure to do a number on their confidence, even when they want to improve their language skills. 

“Sadly, in the United States, there is still a problem with Spanish from Latinx communities being seen as the less desirable language and accent,” says Renteria. “This is a big reason many immigrants feel shame and inadequate attempting to speak English, even if it’s a few words.”

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a group of sexually transmitted infections that are so common that almost everyone will have this type of infection at some point. While some people never know they have it, others develop physical symptoms like genital warts.

If you’ve been diagnosed with the HPV virus, it can help to understand what to expect. Learn the emotional, physical, and social impacts of HPV, along with how to approach the subject with a partner—and what to do if your partner has been diagnosed with HPV.

HPV Symptoms and Diagnosis

There are more than 150 types of HPV. Some are mild and show no signs, resolving on their own within a couple of years. Others cause genital warts or abnormal cell changes that can lead to the development of cervical cancer.  

The American Cancer Society recommends that individuals with a cervix be screened with an HPV test between 25 and 65 years of age. This test is used to look for forms of the virus more likely to cause cancer and can be performed at the same time as a Pap test.

While HPV itself cannot be treated, its symptoms (like genital warts) and effects (such as cellular changes and even cancer) can be positively impacted with treatment. If you’re living with HPV, it’s helpful to understand how this may impact you and your relationships.

Emotional Impact of Living With HPV

Getting a diagnosis of HPV can take a toll emotionally. Some people withdraw socially and exhibit symptoms of anxiety and depression over their diagnosis. Yet, it’s important to remember that someone with HPV can go on to live a regular life. 

Having a sexually transmitted infection can also impact you emotionally since it may affect future romantic relationships. But this doesn’t mean you won’t be able to have loving and committed relationships. It just means that you need to find a way to share that you are living with HPV with any romantic partners you have.

Physical Impact of Living With HPV

One of the most worrying concerns of an HPV diagnosis is developing cancer, and most cases of cervical cancer are caused by HPV. The good news is that it can be prevented. Going for regular pap smears can detect abnormalities in your cervix that might be precancerous. Treating these abnormalities can also prevent cervical cancer from developing.

In many cases of HPV, your immune system will fight back and the virus will resolve on its own. This can take anywhere between a couple of months to a couple of years. As your body works to fight off the virus, you can help it along by practicing a few healthy habits. 

Social Impact of Living With HPV

Being diagnosed with HPV is nothing to be ashamed about. Remember: most sexually active people have been exposed to the virus at some point in their lives.

Understandably, an HPV diagnosis can cause some anxiety, so it’s crucial to find a support system to lean on. You may choose to open up about your condition to family and friends, or you could join a local support group for people living with HPV. 

Sex and Relationships With HPV 

If you’ve been diagnosed with HPV, you might be advised to abstain from sex for a while. Although using a condom can reduce the risk of transmission to your partner, it doesn’t eliminate it.

While it can be a difficult conversation to have, depending on your situation, your physician may advise that you inform your partner of your diagnosis. This enables them to check in with their healthcare provider to learn if the virus has been passed to them.

Having a partner who has been diagnosed with HPV doesn’t necessarily mean that they have been unfaithful to you. If the virus is transmitted to you from a partner, keep in mind that they most likely didn’t know they were living with the infection and had no intention of infecting you. 

It’s essential to have open and honest conversations about your sexual health and sexual history with your partner. It’s also vital to get routinely checked for sexually transmitted infections and diseases.

Helping Others With HPV

If your partner or someone you know is having a hard time after being diagnosed with HPV, there are some things you can do to help. For instance, it’s common for someone with a sexually transmitted infection (STI) to feel shame. Remind them that you are there for them emotionally and that there’s nothing to be ashamed of.

It’s also common for someone with an STI to feel guilt, embarrassment, or a fear of stigma. Encourage them to open up to you about any feelings and struggles they might have about their diagnosis. If they’ve joined a support group, you could also attend meetings with them.